As noted above, the study takes place in the Eastern Cape province where most learners are isiXhosa speakers. This study is motivated by this challenge and the problematic translation of the isiXhosa version of the MSAP teacher guide compared to the original text in English. For example, in the isiXhosa translated version on page 62, the instruction to the teacher is meaningless because of direct word-by-word translation. The translated version reads as ‘Use the number 6, 10 strips with dots and separate them to show 2 × 30’, which does not convey the meaning of the original that stated ‘Use six 10-dot strips and arrange them to show double 30’.

IsiXhosa boasts the lengthiest history of lexicographical development among the African languages in southern Africa, with the earliest written isiXhosa lexicography dating back to 1776 (Nkomo & Wababa 2013). Despite the publication of approximately 16 isiXhosa lexicographical works between 1776 and 2008 and its extensive history of lexicography, one might anticipate that isiXhosa, as a language, would be relatively standardised. However, challenges such as mistranslations and dialectical issues continue to persist (Combrinck & Mtsatse 2018).

The use of unfamiliar isiXhosa mathematical terms may pose a limitation for learners (Jack 2022). Schäfer (2010) argued that there is an urgent requirement for the development of mathematical registers in indigenous languages, particularly for the subjects of mathematics and science. One response to the call of using everyday language is Nkomo’s (2015) non-purist approach to providing an English and isiXhosa mathematical dictionary, yet this dictionary does not appear to be widely used in the translation of resources provided for use in classrooms by the DBE.

The majority of early-grade mathematics materials (including the MSAP materials) are initially designed and written in English and subsequently translated into African languages with minimal adaptation, as noted by Mostert (2019). Mostert (2019) argues that this practice overlooks the linguistic differences between English and African languages, leading to a loss of meaning in the translation process. Mpalami (2022) emphasises the importance of maintaining consistency in terminology for accurate and timely translations. He adds that this responsibility should not be left to individual mathematics teachers but requires a broader and more centralised approach. Sapire (2012) concurs that there is a need for increased availability of high-quality teaching and learning resources in relevant African languages.

Teaching and learning in South Africa are guided by the Language in Education Policy (LiEP) of 1997 and is still valid today. Likewise, the National Curriculum and Assessment Statement Policy Statement of 2011. Both of these documents are still the informing documents that are used today. This said, South Africa’s LiEP promotes multilingualism, as outlined by the Department of Education in 1997. The National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) serves as the foundation for early mathematics education, specifying the content, scope and progression of concepts for each grade (DBE 2011). Learners are given mathematics workbooks aligned with CAPS content areas and presented in the language of learning and teaching (LoLT) used in their respective schools. However, it is noteworthy that student teachers, as mentioned in Ramollo (2014), have reported to her during her study potential inaccuracies in the language used in the CAPS document translated into African languages. These inaccuracies seem to stem from the translators’ bias towards a formal ‘standardised’ version of isiXhosa and/or their own spoken home language, with specific regional or dialect forms. This highlights the crucial role language plays in teaching and learning mathematics, emphasising the challenges involved in achieving linguistic accuracy.

Tshuma (2021) underscores the significance of language in mathematics education, emphasising its potential to either facilitate learners’ comprehension or impede their progress in mathematics. Learners need to grasp both the everyday language employed in tasks and the corresponding mathematical terminology (Mpalami 2022). Mbekwa (2009) adds that teaching learners in the language they comprehend most effectively is both educationally sound and preferable, and often, this language is one that is familiar and relatable to the learners.

Fluency in communication of mathematical ideas and procedures and strategies can be hampered by lengthy and unfamiliar isiXhosa names. For example, Jack (2022) found that learner mathematical fluency was jeopardised when learners experienced sluggish recall of the long and complex isiXhosa number names and mathematical terms.

Translanguaging is a linguistic practice where multilingual individuals fluidly and dynamically use their language resources, moving between different languages or language varieties in communication (Wei 2018). Garcia and Lin (2017) state that translanguaging involves blending and integrating linguistic elements to convey meaning effectively. They continue that it reflects the ability multilingual speakers possess to seamlessly navigate and combine their linguistic resource for effective communication. For example, a teacher might be speaking in isiXhosa but may substitute English names/words for certain concepts like number names during an interaction with learners. This creates a hybrid expression that is easily understood by speakers of the dominant language; in this case, it being isiXhosa. This practice enhances communication by drawing on diverse linguistic tools.

In the classroom, teachers use translanguaging to make learners understand complex and new concepts in the text like long number names (Prinsloo & Krause 2019). They use contextual reference, that is using English for number names, money and telling time to create some level of relatability (Essien 2010). This can help young learners to better understand the content being taught and to feel more engaged in the learning process.

There are instances when a multilingual mathematics learner knows a particular mathematical term in both English and their primary language, in the case of this article, this being isiXhosa, but the English term tends to be more readily accessible during mathematical conversations. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that the majority of African language speakers in South Africa receive their mathematics education in English (Setati 2001) and therefore tend to converse using English terms that are then filtered down to the younger learners.

In this article, the teaching materials are intended for learners in Grade 3, generally aged between 9 and 10 years. The learners in the broader study are learning in their home language (isiXhosa); however, most of them may know the mathematical terms that have been borrowed from the English language through social interaction of cultures and the evolution of language (Mpalami 2022). Using unrelatable and unfamiliar isiXhosa mathematical terms, such as ‘ukuthabatha’ instead of ‘ukususa’ [‘subtraction’ instead of ‘taking away’] and ‘ukuhlela’ instead of ‘ukulungisa’ [‘assemble’ instead of ‘arrange’], can be a constraining factor for learners to acquire conceptual understanding; hence teachers need to be more aware of the importance of everyday language that learners bring into the classroom and support and encourage the learners’ use of everyday language.

In the first author’s experience of teaching in a rural area where the learners are expected to use a more formalised version of (standard) isiXhosa, the learners responded better when translanguaging was used. For example, for number names, money and time, she would use English. This could have been because they could relate to the mathematical terms and number names better in non-standardised isiXhosa and English than the standardised isiXhosa. This non-standardised isiXhosa is learned as the first language at home, through intensive everyday communication, but it is not necessarily standardised; for example, learners are familiar with the phrase ‘ukudabulisha’ (to double – the ‘uku’ meaning to and the ‘dabulisha’ meaning double) instead of the standard phrase for it which is ‘ukuphinda kabini’ (also meaning to repeat or multiply twice but is most used in multiplication talk). Foundation Phase learners’ literacies are different from those perceived by policy makers, researchers and curriculum designers (Feza 2016a). It is therefore important to contextualise the registers used in teaching younger learners. Learning mathematics through a well-understood language proves to be beneficial to the learners (Feza 2016b). The first author therefore used translanguaging between non-standardised isiXhosa and English to teach the D&H calculating strategies to the Grade 3 classes. English terms are used in daily conversing between amaXhosa rather that the standardised isiXhosa that is presented in the isiXhosa teacher guide. For example, instead of using ‘ukuphinda kabini’ [multiply by two] as used in the teacher guide, she chose to use ‘ukudabulisha’ [to double].

According to Newmark (1981), translation is a process that attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. The process of translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original, taking into account the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language (Daminov 2022). This involves interpreting the meaning of each word, sentence and phrase in the source text and then finding the equivalent expressions in the target language. In other words, the translation process converts written and spoken language from one source language to a target language while maintaining the meaning and context of the original text.

In mathematics education, translating mathematical terms and concepts from one language to another is crucial to ensure that learners understand the concepts correctly (Schleppegrell 2007). Fidele et al. (2019) argue that teachers must translate mathematical concepts and terms into everyday language to make them understandable to learners. Such translation helps learners to understand the abstract nature of mathematical concepts and enables them to apply these concepts to real-life situations.

Mathematics has a unique language and notation that can be difficult to translate accurately into other languages. For example, the meaning of common mathematical symbols such as +, -, ÷ and × may differ across languages. Mathematical terms may have different translations depending on the context in which they are used, making it challenging to ensure consistent translation across different contexts (Jourdain & Sharma 2016).

Translation helps in breaking down language barriers and facilitating communication between individuals and cultures that speak different languages (Leonardi 2010). Research shows that learners who learn mathematics in their second language may struggle to transfer their knowledge and skills to other contexts (Tan & Lan 2011). However, the second language could also be a salient learning tool considering the case where the learners come into the classroom with knowledge of number names and some concepts such as money and time in English because of cultural dynamics. For example, Jack (2022) states that in her study, during group discussions, the learners were discussing among themselves using some English words and named all the numbers in English. She provides an example where a learner explains to the other group members that ‘funeka siyi-cut-e kay three senze iihafu eziy-three’ [we need to cut it three times to make three halves]. Translation may help to facilitate the transfer of knowledge by making sure that learners understand the concepts in a way that is meaningful to them. For example, teachers can use real-life examples and translate mathematical terms into the learners’ native language to help them make connections between the concepts and their own experiences. Mathematics is a language and being able to communicate mathematical ideas effectively is a crucial part of learning (Schleppegrell 2007).

Translation can help to enhance mathematical communication by making sure that learners understand the mathematical terms and symbols used by their peers and teachers. In many countries, classrooms are becoming more diverse, with learners from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. According to Holmes (2006), education contexts have recently been transformed into pluricultural and plurilingual environments because of international learner exchange programmes, migration study programmes, and the participants of these education contexts bring their own cultural assumptions and experiences to the common practices conducted in these contexts (Francehini 2009; Sierens & Van Avemaet 2014). This diversity presents a challenge and an opportunity for teachers to enrich their teaching by incorporating different perspectives and approaches to problem-solving.

However, this can also pose a challenge if learners do not understand the language of instruction. The broader study focuses on two Grade 3 classes that have majority of isiXhosa speakers, who are learning in their mother tongue. However, isiXhosa has many dialects, and it does not have a single standardised version that all the dialects may use. The learners in this study are not only from the Makhanda area, but there are learners who have relocated from other parts of the Eastern Cape with their parents because of working conditions who therefore do not speak the Makhanda dialect. There are different dialects within the Eastern Cape. These learners must be accommodated, and one of the tools that may be of aid to the situation is a less rigid or a less pure translation that uses words that belong to only one dialect. Translation can help to bridge the gap between different languages and cultures, making mathematics education more accessible and inclusive for all learners. Therefore, this article focuses on the translation of the teaching materials used for teaching D&H as a mental strategy.

Most early-grade mathematics materials are still conceptualised and written in English and then translated into African languages without much adaptation and this results in the differences between the linguistic features of English and African languages being ignored and therefore meaning inevitably lost (Mostert 2019). According to Mpalami (2022), the work of translating mathematics tasks is challenging and should be carried out carefully. He further states that when translating technical mathematics terms, the meaning of the original task is usually distorted and therefore makes it hard for learners to understand the concepts that are envisioned. The MSAP teaching guide in focus in this study illuminates this challenge where direct translation has been used and meaning has been lost.

We employ Toury’s (1995) Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) theory. This theory highlights that ‘translations first and foremost occupy a position in the social and literary system of the target culture, and this position determines the translation strategies that are employed’ (Toury 1995:13). The different types of translations include and are not limited to indigenising (similar to transliteration), literal translation, loaning, adaptation and compensation.

Descriptive Translation Studies is a subset within the broader field of Translation Studies, specifically falling under the ‘pure’ category. The ‘pure’ strand in this context refers to an approach that emphasises strict adherence to linguistic and cultural norms of the target language, often resulting in translations that prioritise formal equivalence and traditional language standards over contemporary usage and accessibility (Munday, 2001). Because of the descriptive nature of isiXhosa, this subset is effective. The descriptive subset concentrates on three key orientations: the product, the process and the function. The place of descriptive studies within broader translation studies is captured in Figure 1.

In this study, we analyse the translation in the isiXhosa teacher guide and contrast this against the use of transliteration to translate the unfamiliar terms and those that have dual meanings. This is a more transparent and user-friendly technique because languages evolve with time and community structures (Nkomo & Wababa 2013). There are now more indigenised English words used in isiXhosa daily language than before through transliteration. Correct language translation is an essential part of mathematics teaching and learning, particularly in multilingual and multicultural settings. Teachers must be able to translate mathematical terms and concepts into a language that learners can understand to ensure that all learners have equal access to the curriculum and are able to develop their mathematical understanding.

The isiXhosa translation of the MSAP teacher guide and learner materials will likely be used by many teachers and learners across the Eastern Cape. It is thus important that the translations be sensible, accurate and accessible. In the Makhanda district of the Eastern Cape, the dialect spoken in this district is isiRharhabe, which is the standard isiXhosa by Pan South African Language Board (PanSALB). The PanSALB supports the incorporation of indigenous languages into the education system to enhance accessibility and inclusivity, thereby fostering cultural diversity and improving educational outcomes for speakers of all South African languages (Orman 2009). The recognition of this dialect stems from the historical development of isiXhosa orthography. It holds significance as one of the earliest indigenous languages in South Africa to be transcribed, a task undertaken by missionaries under the leadership of John Bennie and John Ross in 1823 (Maseko 2017).

The choice of words used in the MSAP teacher guide is not, however, relatable to the learners in the Makhanda district. It appears as a more standardised version of isiXhosa that includes words from various isiXhosa dialects. And in the translation process, in most instances, the context of the words was not considered. Direct translation appears to have been done often resulting in the loss of meaning.

We employed Toury’s DTS theory to construct the language of description for the nature of the translations, the process, from the English MSAP teacher guide to the isiXhosa. This theory was chosen because of its applicability to languages like isiXhosa, which can be classified as a descriptive language. In the context of isiXhosa, descriptiveness manifests when direct equivalents are absent, resulting in the product being of descriptive nature. The utilisation of transliteration terms like ‘ihafu’ and ‘idabuli’ is commonplace and acceptable in the classroom during numerical discussions. Additionally, Toury (2012) posits that translation predominantly occupies a specific position within the social and literary system of the target culture, influencing the translation strategies employed. If we opt for the transliteration strategy in translation, it is essential to consistently apply this approach throughout the entire translation of the book. Additionally, the selected terms must align with the same linguistic register.

The initial phase of this research involved identifying instances of distortion in meaning and the use of unfamiliar terminology. The aim was to locate more appropriate equivalents that were both familiar and comparable to the original text, which, in this context, was formulated in English. According to Gauton, Taljard and De Schryver (2003), the common practice in South Africa, particularly when translating technical content into indigenous languages like isiXhosa, is to begin with the original English text. They add that this is primarily because indigenous languages may lack the requisite technical vocabulary.

Upon examining different aspects of the isiXhosa MSAP teacher guide, we observed a few instances of the use of transliteration and several more ‘missed opportunities’ where transliteration could have been used but was not. For example, terms like ‘ihafu’ and ‘izitriphu’ are transliterated because maybe the translator did not have the vocabulary for these terms; yet for terms like ‘ukuphinda kabini’ and ‘ukuhlela’, the terms are translated through the descriptive approach when they may be transliterated. This runs counter to the fundamental principles of document translation as outlined in the DTS theory, which emphasises maintaining consistent translation techniques throughout the document.

The author’s Grade 3 class confirmed that they also preferred using the suggested vocabulary (Booi, forthcoming or in progress). This was achieved through an interactive discussion with the Grade 3 class. The learners shared their contributions towards the selection of vocabulary to be used. Table 1 summarises this selection process.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Rhodes University Education Faculty Research Ethics Committee (EF-REC) on 8 August 2023. The application number is 2023-7135-7516.

In Table 2, we present instances of expressions found in the current MSAP isiXhosa teacher guide for D&H, where meaning is compromised, or linguistic rules are violated as a result of direct translation without taking the context into consideration.

In the next section, we provide a detailed analysis of a full extract from the Doubling and Halving unit in the English Teacher Guide (DBE 2020a) and the isiXhosa Teacher Guide (DBE 2020b) in order to exemplify several translation issues across a full task sequence that would likely create challenges for both teachers and learners when using the isiXhosa version. Figure 2 shows the distortion in meaning that occurs throughout the MSAP isiXhosa Teacher Guide because of direct translation and not taking into consideration the context.

The following points provide explanation of the annotations in Figure 2:

The tables and figures provided in this article highlight several translation issues that are likely to create barriers to teachers’ opportunities to communicate mathematical meaning to learners. From these to improve the effectiveness of translated materials, we suggest that the following strategies be implemented and researched:

In essence, this study advocates for a nuanced and thoughtful approach to translation, acknowledging the intricacies of language and emphasising the importance of retaining meaning and effectiveness in teaching and learning materials. By embracing translanguaging and informed translation theories, educators can ensure that translated materials truly serve their purpose in facilitating comprehensive and accessible education.

In the development of isiXhosa teaching materials for the Foundation Phase, it is crucial to adopt a comprehensive and collaborative approach that involves active participation from various stakeholders. These stakeholders include language and mathematics educators, indigenous language scholars and a departure from a strict linguistic purist standpoint. Notably, while numerous educational resources have been created to address language-related challenges in other educational phases, there is a noticeable lack of similar efforts dedicated to the Foundation Phase.

Firstly, the collaborative engagement of educators from both language and mathematical disciplines is essential. This collaboration is based on the recognition that effective pedagogical materials must harmoniously integrate language and mathematical concepts. Therefore, the dual participation of language and mathematics teachers is vital, as their combined expertise ensures alignment between linguistic clarity and mathematical precision, fostering a cohesive learning experience.

Secondly, the involvement of indigenous language academics holds paramount importance. These scholars bring a nuanced understanding of isiXhosa to the forefront, ensuring that the translation and adaptation of mathematical concepts are not only linguistically accurate but also culturally resonant. This cultural alignment plays a key role in enhancing the relevance of teaching materials and instilling a sense of belonging and cultural pride among learners.

In contrast to a purist approach that prioritises linguistic purity potentially at the expense of pedagogical effectiveness, it is crucial to adopt a pragmatic stance. A purist approach, often inflexible in its linguistic standards, may inadvertently hinder the development of materials that are accessible and comprehensible to learners. Therefore, a departure from linguistic purism is recommended, allowing for some linguistic adaptation to optimise clarity and instructional effectiveness.

The collaborative involvement of educators from both language and mathematics domains, the inclusion of indigenous language academics and a departure from linguistic purism collectively form a crucial strategy for creating isiXhosa teaching materials tailored to the unique requirements of the Foundation Phase. This approach recognises the distinctive linguistic and pedagogical nuances inherent in this phase, aiming to bridge the existing gap in educational resources and ensure equitable support and opportunities for scholastic achievement for isiXhosa-speaking learners.

This comparative document analysis undertaken, focusing on the translation quality and conceptual fidelity of the MSAP D&H teaching materials not only highlights the disparities in linguistic fidelity, terminological consistency, conceptual accuracy and cultural alignment between inadequately translated MSAP materials and their counterparts but also offers valuable insights into the multifaceted implications of translation quality on mathematics education in South Africa. The findings of the study underscore the urgent need for a broader translation effort of learning materials from English to isiXhosa and other indigenous languages. However, the complexities of translation, particularly in the intricate isiXhosa language, demand a nuanced approach. The challenges identified, such as the loss of meaning through direct translation and the hindrance to understanding because of unfamiliar terms, emphasise the importance of translanguaging and consideration of translation theories in the translation process.

Looking ahead, we recommend a collaborative and comprehensive approach to the development of isiXhosa teaching materials for the Foundation Phase. The active participation of language and mathematics educators, indigenous language scholars and a departure from linguistic purism are crucial elements in creating materials that bridge the existing gap in educational resources. This approach acknowledges the unique linguistic and pedagogical nuances of the Foundation Phase, aiming to provide equitable support and opportunities for isiXhosa-speaking learners.

We trust this article contributes to the ongoing discourse on the intersection of language and mathematics education, advocating for a thoughtful and collaborative approach to translation and material development. By addressing the identified challenges and implementing the recommended strategies, educators and stakeholders can work towards fostering a more inclusive and effective educational environment for isiXhosa-speaking learners in South Africa’s Foundation Phase.