Original Research

Neurodiversity and trauma in early childhood: Implications for inclusive learning

Hamid Patilima

Received: 05 Mar. 2025; Accepted: 14 Apr. 2025; Published: 18 July 2025

Copyright: © 2025. The Author Licensee: AOSIS.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Background: Neurodiverse children face significant challenges in early childhood education (ECE) – including sensory overload, social exclusion and rigid teaching methods, potentially causing trauma that hinders cognitive and emotional growth. High-income countries experience intense academic pressures, whereas low-resource settings grapple with insufficient support services and stigma, worsening educational disparities.

Aim: This study explores intersections of neurodiversity and trauma in ECE, identifying barriers like inadequate teacher training, inflexible curricula and exclusionary disciplinary practices. It further investigates trauma-informed educational strategies and proposes policies for enhancing inclusion.

Setting: Inclusive education policies in high-income countries (Finland and Canada) were compared to low-resource contexts (South Africa and Global South), highlighting disparities in resources, teacher preparedness and institutional support significantly affecting neurodiverse children’s educational experiences.

Methods: A systematic qualitative secondary research design was employed, analysing reports from international organisations such as the (United Nations Children’s Fund [UNICEF], World Health Organization [WHO], United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] and International Labour Organization [ILO]) and peer-reviewed journal articles. Thematic content and comparative policy analyses identified challenges and best practices across socioeconomic contexts.

Results: Neurodiverse learners disproportionately experience negative impacts from segregated classrooms and punitive discipline, leading to increased anxiety and reduced social interactions. Countries implementing inclusive strategies, such as universal design for learning (UDL) and individualised learning plans, report improved academic and social outcomes. Conversely, low-resource settings encounter substantial challenges because of limited resources and policy gaps.

Conclusion: Addressing trauma in ECE requires structured routines, sensory-friendly classrooms and social-emotional learning (SEL). Integrating trauma-informed practices and expanding support services are critical.

Contribution: The study advocates adopting UDL, trauma-informed education, improved teacher training and enhanced collaboration among schools, healthcare providers and families to bridge policy–practice gaps, establishing inclusive educational environments for neurodiverse children globally.

Keywords: education; early childhood education; inclusive education; special education; educational policy; educational psychology.

Introduction

Background

The concept of neurodiversity acknowledges cognitive differences – such as autism, attention-deficit and/or hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyslexia and dyspraxia – as natural variations of the human brain rather than deficits (Armstrong 2012; Singer 1999). However, early childhood education (ECE) systems continue to operate within standardised frameworks that inadequately support neurodivergent learners. These learners face disproportionate challenges, including rigid classroom structures, exclusionary disciplinary practices and insufficiently trained educators (Baron-Cohen 2017; Kapp et al. 2013).

Research highlights how exclusionary practices exacerbate trauma, leading to school-related anxiety and disengagement (Goodall 2020; Pellicano, Dinsmore & Charman 2018). In South Africa, for example, UNESCO (2020) reports that 40% of neurodivergent children encounter barriers to inclusive education (Department of Basic Education 2001, 2019), primarily because of systemic shortcomings such as inadequate teacher preparation (UNESCO 2021; Walton et al. 2020). Finland and Canada, in contrast, have made strides in inclusive and trauma-informed education, yet their models remain difficult to replicate in low-resource contexts without adaptation.

This study explores how trauma and neurodiversity intersect in ECE and investigates trauma-informed practices that promote learning and well-being, particularly in resource-constrained environments.

Problem statement

Despite global advancements in inclusive education, the intersection of neurodiversity and trauma in early childhood remains underexplored, particularly in the Global South. While countries like Finland and Canada have implemented universal design for learning (UDL) and trauma-informed frameworks with measurable success, their scalability in low-resource settings is challenged by economic, infrastructural and policy limitations.

In South Africa, White Paper 6 outlines inclusive education goals, yet implementation remains inconsistent. Standardised curricula persist, often emphasising rote learning and uniform assessments that marginalise neurodivergent learners (Engelbrecht et al. 2020). The lack of trauma-informed teacher training further compounds emotional and academic difficulties.

This study addresses the research gap by examining how exclusionary educational practices contribute to trauma and by evaluating strategies that can foster more inclusive, emotionally supportive learning environments for neurodivergent children in diverse contexts.

Research objectives

This study is guided by the following objectives:

• To examine the relationship between neurodiversity and trauma in early childhood education.
• To assess the impact of exclusionary educational practices on neurodivergent learners.
• To identify effective trauma-informed strategies for inclusive learning environments.
• To propose policy recommendations to improve teacher training and institutional frameworks supporting neurodivergent children.

The study draws on global evidence supporting structured routines, sensory-sensitive classrooms and social-emotional learning (SEL) as integral components of inclusive ECE. It advocates for the contextual adoption of UDL and trauma-informed pedagogy in both high- and low-resource settings, with a focus on cross-sector collaboration.

Literature review

Neurodiversity in early childhood education

Neurodiversity refers to the natural variations in human cognition and neurological functioning. Children who are neurodivergent, including those with autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, dyslexia and dyspraxia, often experience challenges in traditional educational environments (Baron-Cohen 2017; Kapp et al. 2013).

Many ECE systems implement rigid, one-size-fits-all teaching models that do not consider neurodiverse learning needs. For example, South Africa’s national curriculum framework has been criticised for its heavy reliance on standardised testing and lack of accommodations for neurodivergent learners (Engelbrecht et al. 2020). Similarly, in India, rigid classroom structures and inflexible assessment methods have led to high dropout rates among students with learning disabilities (Sharma & Salend 2016).

A report by UNESCO (2021) found that over 60% of ECE programmes worldwide still rely on standardised curricula with minimal flexibility. This lack of adaptability limits opportunities for neurodivergent learners to thrive and contributes to disengagement and academic difficulties. Research by Engelbrecht et al. (2020) highlights that in South Africa, only 25% of teachers receive training in differentiated instruction. This lack of preparation reinforces rigid educational structures, limiting the inclusion of neurodivergent learners and hindering their academic progress.

This lack of adaptability often results in educational trauma, disengagement and social exclusion (Pellicano et al. 2018; Wood & Happé 2021). Conventional pedagogical methods frequently emphasise inflexible curricula, standardised testing and rigid classroom structures. These limitations restrict opportunities for individualised learning and adaptive teaching strategies, further marginalising neurodivergent students.

In contrast, inclusive teaching strategies, such as UDL and trauma-informed education, have been shown to improve learning outcomes for neurodivergent students by emphasising flexibility, student-driven inquiry and multimodal learning opportunities (CAST 2018; Heiskanen et al. 2021).

However, a lack of awareness and insufficient teacher training, particularly in low-resource settings, exacerbates these challenges (Jowett & Dyer 2012; Sharma & Salend 2016; Walton & Engelbrecht 2022). Studies indicate that when educators lack inclusive teaching strategies, neurodivergent learners face increased disengagement, heightened anxiety and a greater likelihood of dropping out of school (Engelbrecht et al. 2019).

Schools that implement SEL programmes and teacher professional development in inclusive pedagogy report increased student engagement and reduced behavioural challenges. For example, a meta-analysis by Durlak et al. (2011) found that students in schools with SEL programmes showed a 27% improvement in academic performance and a 24% reduction in behavioural issues. Additionally, research by Jones and Holmes (2019) highlights that SEL interventions improve emotional regulation and peer relationships, particularly among neurodivergent students, leading to higher retention rates and decreased school-related anxiety.

The impact of trauma on learning

Trauma in educational settings manifests in various forms, including sensory overload, social exclusion and punitive disciplinary measures. According to World Health Organization (WHO) and UNESCO reports, early childhood trauma significantly affects cognitive development, emotional regulation and long-term learning outcomes (UNESCO 2023; WHO 2021). Neurodiverse children are particularly vulnerable because of heightened sensitivities and difficulties in processing social interactions (Shonkoff et al. 2012). Prolonged exposure to stress and trauma can disrupt brain development, affecting cognitive flexibility, impulse control and emotional regulation, leading to difficulties in maintaining focus and retaining new information (McLaughlin, Sheridan & Lambert 2014).

For instance, a study by Shonkoff et al. (2012) found that children experiencing prolonged stress exhibited heightened cortisol levels, negatively impacting their attention span and working memory. Similarly, trauma-exposed students showed greater difficulty adapting to structured classroom routines, often requiring additional support in executive functioning tasks such as planning and problem solving (McLaughlin et al. 2014). One successful intervention is the implementation of school-based mindfulness programmes, which have been shown to improve emotional regulation and reduce stress among trauma-exposed students (Zelazo & Lyons 2012). Structured peer mentoring programmes, such as those used in Canada’s SEL curriculum, also provide neurodivergent students with guided social interactions that enhance confidence and interpersonal skills (McLennan et al. 2020).

In low-resource settings, where inclusive education policies remain underdeveloped, limited teacher training exacerbates these challenges (Engelbrecht et al. 2019). Trauma-informed teaching strategies, including structured routines, sensory-friendly classrooms and SEL, have shown promise in mitigating negative impacts and fostering resilience in neurodivergent learners (Durlak et al. 2011). Schools integrating SEL practices report lower levels of anxiety and increased academic performance among neurodiverse students (Durlak et al. 2011; McLennan et al. 2020).

Global perspectives on inclusive and trauma-informed education

International organisations such as UNICEF and UNESCO emphasise the importance of inclusive education policies supporting neurodiverse learners. Countries like Finland and Canada have successfully implemented trauma-informed teaching approaches, leading to improved academic and social outcomes for neurodiverse students (Heiskanen et al. 2021; McLennan et al. 2020).

Finland’s UDL model embraces a flexible curriculum prioritising individualised instruction, multimodal learning pathways and differentiated assessment techniques (Heiskanen et al. 2021). In contrast, Canada integrates trauma-sensitive pedagogy and SEL into early education programmes, emphasising emotional regulation and student well-being as core learning components (McLennan et al. 2020). Finland’s approach fosters autonomy through customised assessments and student-driven instruction, while Canada integrates structured interventions such as early childhood SEL programmes to mitigate trauma effects.

Despite these successful models, resource-constrained regions such as South Africa, Brazil and Mexico face significant barriers, including inadequate infrastructure, limited access to specialised teacher training and inconsistencies in policy implementation. Similar challenges are observed in Latin America, particularly in Brazil and Mexico, where inclusive education policies exist but suffer from inconsistent enforcement and a lack of teacher preparation programmes (Azuka et al. 2024; Bartlett & Smith 2019). In contrast, some Southeast Asian countries, such as Indonesia and the Philippines, have begun integrating neurodiversity-sensitive training into national education frameworks but continue to struggle with funding limitations and cultural stigma surrounding learning differences (Tan et al. 2017).

Addressing these disparities requires targeted investments in professional development, interdisciplinary collaboration and localised policy reforms.

One promising initiative is the Inclusive Education Policy Framework in South Africa, which integrates neurodiversity-sensitive training into teacher education programmes. Additionally, initiatives such as Kenya’s Tusome Early Grade Reading programme have enhanced accessibility by incorporating adaptive teaching methods and structured teacher mentoring (Jowett & Dyer 2012).

Expanding these models to low-resource settings could improve educational outcomes for neurodivergent learners while ensuring sustainable policy implementation. Key aspects of these models that can be adapted include cost-effective teacher training, structured peer mentoring programmes and the integration of SEL frameworks that require minimal infrastructure investments.

Additionally, leveraging community-based educational initiatives and digital learning resources can help bridge accessibility gaps, making these models more viable in resource-constrained settings.

However, challenges such as cultural differences, lack of infrastructure and limited governmental support may hinder scalability. Effective adaptation requires localised curriculum modifications, specialised teacher training and long-term policy commitments (Walton & Engelbrecht 2022). Partnerships between governments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and academic institutions can help bridge gaps in resources and expertise, ensuring successful integration of inclusive education practices (Donohue & Bornman 2015).

Research methods and design

Research design and data sources

This study employs a systematic review approach guided by Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) (see Figure 1) 2000 to examine the intersection of neurodiversity, trauma and inclusive education policies. The research utilised secondary data from reputable international organisations, including UNICEF, WHO, UNESCO and International Labour Organization (ILO), selected for their credibility, global relevance and focus on ECE research.

FIGURE 1: PRISMA flow diagram of article selection process.

A comprehensive database search was conducted using Publish or Perish, extracting data from multiple scholarly databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed and Google Scholar. The search yielded 630 articles, which were then assessed for relevance, quality and methodological rigour. Following a systematic selection process, 25 high-impact articles were chosen for in-depth analysis, ensuring that only peer-reviewed studies and authoritative policy reports were included.

Justification for using secondary data lies in its ability to provide broad comparative insights across multiple countries, enabling a global perspective on inclusive education. Given the difficulties in collecting primary data across multiple regions, a systematic review approach allows for a synthesis of verified studies, reducing bias because of location-specific factors. Additionally, secondary data enable the integration of policy reports and peer-reviewed research that have already undergone rigorous validation processes, ensuring a methodologically robust foundation for analysis.

Article selection process

The article selection process followed a systematic four-stage approach to ensure methodological rigour and relevance to the study objectives:

Identification phase: Articles were retrieved using Publish or Perish, extracting data from databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed and Google Scholar. The keywords used included ‘neurodiversity in education’, ‘trauma-informed teaching’, ‘inclusive education policies’, ‘special education inclusion’, ‘cognitive diversity in classrooms’, ‘early childhood learning disabilities’, ‘UDL’, ‘mental health in early education’ and ‘adaptive learning strategies for neurodivergent students’. The initial search resulted in 630 articles (Efendi et al. 2022).

Screening phase: Articles were filtered based on quality, credibility and thematic alignment. Duplicates and irrelevant studies were removed. 150 articles were further reviewed based on abstracts and alignment with study objectives. After this step, 80 full-text articles were retrieved for detailed analysis.

Eligibility assessment: Each article was critically examined for methodological rigour and policy relevance. Selection criteria prioritised sources from peer-reviewed journals indexed in Scopus and Web of Science, as well as policy documents from internationally recognised organisations. These sources were evaluated based on transparency in methodology, sample size and impact on policy development, ensuring reliability and applicability to inclusive education research. After applying inclusion criteria, 70 articles were deemed relevant. A more refined selection resulted in 50 highly relevant articles, while 20 were removed because of duplication or weak methodological frameworks. An additional 15 articles were excluded for containing redundant data.

Data synthesis and thematic categorisation: After the final selection, 25 articles were included in the systematic analysis (Aina & Bipath 2022; Kern & Clemens 2015). The selected articles were categorised based on thematic areas, focusing on policy effectiveness, trauma-informed education, accessibility and teacher training.

This diagram visually represents the four-stage selection process used in the systematic review, from the identification of 630 articles to the final inclusion of 25 studies.

Analytical framework

A thematic analysis was conducted to categorise findings into key focus areas. To ensure reliability and reproducibility, free and open-source Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) software such as QDA Miner Lite and Taguette were used for qualitative coding and pattern identification. The analytical framework focused on the following themes:

• Educational access: Examining disparities in school enrolment and retention rates among neurodiverse learners.
• Trauma-informed teaching: Assessing the impact of mental health support, flexible learning and SEL frameworks.
• Policy frameworks: Evaluating government policies and their effectiveness in promoting inclusive education.
• Workforce integration: Investigating how teacher training and professional development influence inclusive education practices.

Findings from thematic analysis

The findings of this study provide insights into key aspects of neurodiversity and trauma-informed education. Four major themes emerged from the analysis, highlighting disparities in educational access, the effectiveness of trauma-informed teaching, the impact of policy frameworks and the role of workforce integration (Becker 2023) in supporting neurodiverse learners.

Educational access remains a critical challenge, particularly in regions with limited resources. In sub-Saharan Africa, only 10% of neurodiverse children have access to inclusive education, compared to 75% in high-income countries (UNICEF 2023). Similarly, in South Asia, neurodivergent children are five times more likely to drop out of school because of inadequate support services (World Bank 2023).

Trauma-informed teaching plays a crucial role in mitigating these challenges. A meta-analysis by Patel et al. (2023) found that trauma-exposed children were 35% more likely to exhibit executive functioning deficits and behavioural dysregulation. In response, Finland’s integration of SEL and UDL has successfully enhanced student engagement and reduced dropout rates. Similarly, in South Africa, the Gauteng Inclusive Education Pilot Program has shown promising improvements in student emotional regulation and engagement (Walton & Engelbrecht 2022).

Policy frameworks play an essential role in shaping inclusive education. Canada and Finland have established comprehensive legal frameworks that support inclusive education through well-structured teacher training programmes. In contrast, South Africa’s White Paper 6, despite its aim to promote special needs education, continues to face challenges because of limited funding and inadequate teacher training (Engelbrecht et al. 2020).

Workforce integration is another crucial aspect influencing the success of inclusive education. A longitudinal study by Smith and Roberts (2023, 2023b) found that schools implementing structured neurodiversity training for educators saw a 25% increase in student engagement and academic performance. Additionally, workplace transition programmes in Germany and Australia have demonstrated positive effects in improving employment outcomes for neurodiverse individuals (ILO 2023).

Study limitations and future directions

While this study provides valuable global insights, reliance on secondary data presents certain limitations. Differences in cultural and educational contexts, as well as potential biases in policy reporting, may influence the findings and limit the generalisability of the results across regions. Future research should incorporate primary data collection through field studies, direct policy evaluations and interviews with educators and stakeholders to mitigate these limitations. To strengthen the evidence base, future research should integrate mixed-method approaches, including:

• Qualitative case studies and interviews: Direct engagement with educators, parents and neurodiverse students would offer deeper insight into the practical challenges faced in different educational settings.
• Longitudinal studies: Examining long-term academic and social outcomes of trauma-informed education would help refine inclusive education strategies.
• Experimental research: Controlled studies testing the effectiveness of different inclusive education interventions would provide empirical evidence for best practices.
• Comparative policy analysis: Future studies should examine cross-country policy effectiveness to identify the most scalable and adaptable strategies for inclusive education.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Panca Sakti University of Bekasi Research Institutions and Community Service (LPPM) Ethical Clearance Commission (clearance no: 001/LPPM.ECC/PSUB/III/2025).

Results and discussion

This section presents findings from 25 selected articles. The results are structured around key themes that directly align with the study’s stated objectives. Each subsection highlights how the literature supports or addresses a particular objective.

Relationship between neurodiversity and trauma in early childhood education

Out of the 25 reviewed articles, 19 specifically explored how trauma and neurodiversity intersect in ECE. These studies demonstrate that neurodivergent learners are more susceptible to trauma because of their heightened sensory sensitivities, social exclusion and difficulties with conventional classroom expectations. For instance, trauma-exposed children with neurodevelopmental conditions often experience disrupted emotional regulation, executive functioning and social communication skills (Patel et al. 2023; WHO 2023).

Multiple studies identified school-related factors such as rigid classroom routines, exclusionary discipline policies and lack of accommodations as contributors to heightened trauma. These factors can trigger avoidance behaviours and cognitive disengagement in neurodivergent children, especially in low-resource settings where mental health and behavioural supports are limited (Walton & Engelbrecht 2022).

Impact of exclusionary educational practices on neurodivergent learners

Seventeen of the reviewed articles documented the harmful effects of exclusionary educational practices on neurodivergent children. These include suspensions, seclusion and behavioural punishment strategies that fail to accommodate learners’ diverse needs. The literature indicates that exclusionary discipline is correlated with higher dropout rates, social withdrawal and emotional distress (UNESCO 2023).

Moreover, the lack of individualised education plans (IEPs), standardised curricula and high-stake assessments limits opportunities for neurodivergent learners to thrive. Research conducted in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa reports disproportionately high exclusion rates because of inadequate teacher preparedness and inflexible school systems (World Bank 2023).

Trauma-informed strategies for inclusive learning environments

Fifteen articles focused on effective trauma-informed strategies in educational contexts. Key interventions include SEL, UDL, mindfulness practices, de-escalation strategies and sensory-friendly classroom arrangements. Implementation of such approaches has shown improvements in learners’ emotional resilience and academic engagement.

In Finland and Canada, the integration of UDL and SEL frameworks has reduced behavioural disruptions and enhanced inclusivity (Perry & Szalavitz 2022). In South Africa, pilot programmes incorporating trauma-informed teacher training showed increased student participation and emotional regulation (Walton & Engelbrecht 2022). These findings affirm the necessity of embedding structured emotional support systems into ECE.

Policy recommendations for supporting neurodivergent learners

Twelve articles provided insights into policy-level recommendations for improving inclusive education for neurodivergent children. In particular, South Africa’s White Paper 6 was frequently cited for its limited implementation despite progressive intentions. Key policy gaps include insufficient funding, limited professional development programmes and a lack of monitoring and evaluation mechanisms (Engelbrecht et al. 2016).

Suggested reforms include embedding neurodiversity-focused training in teacher education, allocating targeted resources for inclusion and establishing inter-ministerial coordination between education and health sectors. Comparative studies recommend adapting successful models from Finland, Canada and Germany while ensuring alignment with local infrastructure and cultural contexts.

Implications for learning and well-being

Fifteen articles highlighted that inclusive and trauma-informed practices improve both learning outcomes and well-being among neurodivergent children. Benefits include enhanced emotional self-regulation, stronger peer relationships, greater academic engagement and reduced disciplinary actions. Social-emotional learning and UDL approaches, in particular, were shown to foster resilience, participation and a sense of belonging.

These outcomes support the integration of inclusive pedagogy as both an educational and psychosocial intervention. As such, policies and classroom practices must address trauma and neurodiversity together to promote holistic child development.

Recommendations

Key findings

This study highlights the significant barriers neurodivergent children face in accessing inclusive education, particularly in low-resource settings such as South Africa. Systemic challenges, including inadequate teacher training, lack of assistive technologies and socio-economic disparities, continue to limit opportunities for neurodivergent learners (UNESCO 2023). Initiatives such as South Africa’s Inclusive Education Policy Framework have attempted to address these issues by promoting specialised teacher training and infrastructure development, though implementation has been inconsistent (Walton & Engelbrecht 2022).

These challenges are particularly pronounced in rural areas, where schools often lack access to specialised staff and learning resources. In contrast, urban settings may experience overcrowded classrooms that hinder individualised support for neurodivergent students. Global disparities in inclusive education persist, with only 10% of neurodivergent children in sub-Saharan Africa receiving appropriate educational support compared to 75% in high-income countries (UNICEF 2023). This disparity reflects broader issues of funding allocation, policy enforcement and cultural perceptions of neurodivergence (World Bank 2023).

The impact of trauma on learning is also substantial, as studies indicate that trauma-exposed students are at a higher risk of behavioural dysregulation and academic disengagement (Patel et al. 2023; WHO 2023). While various international models, including Finland’s UDL and Canada’s SEL framework, have demonstrated success in supporting neurodivergent learners, South Africa continues to struggle with policy execution and resource allocation. Policy fragmentation, inconsistent monitoring mechanisms and limited cross-sector collaboration have hindered large-scale adoption of inclusive education (Walton & Engelbrecht 2022).

Implementing a centralised national task force dedicated to inclusive education, along with region-specific working groups, could improve coordination and streamline policy execution. Lessons from the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education suggest that task forces with clearly defined mandates, cross-sector collaboration and periodic progress evaluations yield better outcomes. A similar approach in South Africa could help address existing policy fragmentation and enhance accountability mechanisms. For example, Indonesia’s implementation of the National Task Force for Inclusive Education has demonstrated improved coordination between government agencies, disability advocacy groups and school administrators. This approach has streamlined policy execution and improved monitoring mechanisms, which South Africa could adapt to enhance the implementation of White Paper 6 (ILO 2023). Additionally, fostering stronger partnerships between education departments, disability advocacy groups and private sector stakeholders may help bridge communication gaps and enhance policy enforcement.

For example, the attempted rollout of White Paper 6 in South Africa was met with logistical challenges, including misalignment between national policies and provincial implementation strategies, leading to inconsistent service delivery. Additionally, a lack of coordination between education departments and disability advocacy groups has resulted in gaps in policy enforcement, further delaying inclusive education reforms (Engelbrecht et al. 2016).

Policy implications

To bridge the existing gaps in inclusive education, governments and policymakers must prioritise the following interventions, aligning with successful international frameworks while addressing local socio-economic constraints:

• Strengthening teacher training: Investing in specialised training programmes to equip educators with skills to support neurodivergent students effectively (Walton & Engelbrecht 2022).
• Implementing trauma-informed practices: Expanding the adoption of trauma-informed education strategies, including mental health support services within schools (McLaughlin, Sheridan & Lambert 2023).
• Enhancing monitoring and accountability mechanisms: Establishing independent oversight bodies to track the implementation of inclusive education policies and ensure compliance (Engelbrecht et al. 2016).
• Securing sustainable funding: Allocating targeted financial resources to support infrastructure development, assistive technologies and teacher capacity-building programmes (World Bank 2023).
• Leveraging public–private partnerships and international collaboration: Encouraging collaboration between governments, NGOs and private entities to enhance funding and programme delivery, similar to Kenya’s Tusome Early Literacy Programme (World Bank 2023).

While Kenya’s programme primarily focused on early-grade literacy, its structured teacher training and data-driven approach to monitoring progress could be adapted to South Africa’s context by integrating similar frameworks for inclusive education. Tailoring these interventions to neurodivergent learners and expanding support beyond literacy skills could make the model more relevant and effective.

For instance, Finland’s inclusive education model initially focused on literacy support but has since evolved to incorporate personalised learning plans and multi-tiered support systems for neurodivergent students. This approach has improved academic outcomes and social integration, demonstrating the benefits of adapting literacy-centred frameworks into comprehensive support structures for diverse learning needs. Implementing similar multi-tiered support systems in South Africa could provide more sustainable, scalable solutions for neurodivergent learners.

Directions for future research

While this study provides critical insights into the intersection of neurodiversity, trauma and education policy, further research is needed to enhance evidence-based policymaking and implementation strategies in the following areas:

• Longitudinal studies on policy effectiveness: Assessing the long-term impact of inclusive education policies on neurodivergent student outcomes, particularly in underfunded school districts and rural areas. Key indicators for measuring effectiveness should include student retention rates, academic performance improvements, access to assistive technologies, teacher preparedness levels and post-education employment outcomes. Additionally, tracking long-term social integration metrics can provide insights into the broader impact of inclusive education policies.
• Mixed-methods research on implementation barriers: Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches to explore the practical challenges educators face in applying inclusive teaching strategies.
• Comparative studies across different socio-economic contexts: Evaluating how countries with similar economic constraints have successfully implemented inclusive education frameworks, with a focus on adaptation strategies for the Global South (Engelbrecht et al. 2016).
• Interventions for workforce integration: Investigating how early education interventions contribute to long-term employability for neurodivergent individuals, particularly through vocational training programmes, job coaching and workplace accommodations.

For example, Australia’s Disability Employment Services (DES) programme provides individualised job coaching and workplace accommodations, significantly increasing employment outcomes for neurodivergent individuals. Similarly, the United Kingdom’s Supported Internship Programme has demonstrated success in integrating neurodivergent students into the workforce by offering structured skills training and employer partnerships (ILO 2023).

Singapore’s Autism Resource Centre collaborates with multinational corporations to provide structured workplace accommodations for neurodivergent employees, leading to a 35% increase in employment retention rates. South Africa could explore similar corporate partnerships to enhance job placement for neurodivergent individuals (ILO 2023).

Conclusion

Research has shown that structured skill-building initiatives, such as Germany’s inclusive apprenticeship programmes, significantly improve employment retention rates among neurodivergent individuals (ILO 2023). Key elements contributing to this success include tailored vocational training, on-the-job mentorship and employer sensitisation programmes that promote inclusive work environments. These features ensure that neurodivergent employees receive adequate support in adapting to professional settings while fostering long-term career growth.

By addressing these key areas, future research can provide more comprehensive, evidence-based recommendations to enhance inclusive education systems globally, particularly in developing regions such as South Africa.

Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges the contributions of researchers, policymakers and institutions whose work informed this study. Special thanks to Panca Sakti University (Universitas Panca Sakti Bekasi) for institutional support.

The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.

H.P. is the sole author of this research article.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, H.P., upon reasonable request.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References