Abstract
Background: New teachers often question whether they possess the knowledge and skills needed to support their students in addressing the challenges of the 21st century. The issue is further complicated by the necessity of understanding linguistically diverse education, second language acquisition, special education needs, neurodiversity and the cultural factors that influence learning and development.
Aim: This article aims to provide a comprehensive guide for new teachers to effectively support bilingual special education students, including those who are neurodiverse.
Setting: The focus of this article is on educational settings that serve bilingual special education students, particularly those who are neurodiverse.
Methods: The author reviews existing literature and synthesises best practices from both the special education and bilingual education fields.
Results: The synthesis of best practices reveals several critical insights. Effective strategies include using individualised instruction, promoting inclusive and culturally responsive teaching practices and integrating social-emotional learning.
Conclusion: The article concludes by emphasising the importance of preparing teachers to address the needs of neurodiverse bilingual special education students.
Contribution: This article contributes to the field by offering a detailed roadmap for new teachers working with bilingual special education students, especially those who are neurodiverse. By synthesising existing best practices, the author provides a resource that can help teachers prepare for the unique challenges of their roles. The guidance provided in this article is intended to help shape a more inclusive, responsive and effective educational environment for these students.
Keywords: bilingual special education; teacher preparation; neurodiversity; language and learning; instruction.
If a child can’t learn the way we teach, maybe we should teach the way they learn.
–Ignacio Estrada
Introduction
The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) and the Partnership for 21st Century Skills emphasise that new teacher candidates must be equipped with not only the foundational knowledge of effective teaching practices but also the critical 21st-century skills needed to foster the success of all students. This knowledge must encompass a comprehensive understanding of classroom practices specifically designed to enable bilingual special education students to overcome the diverse challenges they will face in the 21st century.
The importance of such specialised knowledge is underscored by the data provided by the National Center for Educational Statistics (2021), which reveals that over 700 000 English Learners (ELs) with disabilities were enrolled in U.S. elementary and secondary public schools as of fall 2018. This figure represents 15.3% of the total English Language Learner (ELL) student enrolment in U.S. public schools, highlighting the significant proportion of the student population that must be supported through effective bilingual special education programmes. These students often face compounded challenges, requiring instructional practices that bridge the gap between special education needs and second language acquisition.
Extensive research has underscored the critical need for U.S. educators to be equipped with the necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes to provide appropriate and responsive instruction to ELs, especially those with disabilities. However, despite this awareness, there remains a noticeable gap in training and resources specifically addressing the needs of bilingual special education students. The author of the study offers a conceptual framework for bilingual special education teacher preparation, emphasising the importance of equipping educators with the tools to address both language and disability-related challenges. This framework highlights the need for a dual focus on language development and special education strategies, offering practical recommendations for teaching methods that foster inclusivity, support cognitive and linguistic growth and ultimately help bilingual special education students succeed in both their academic and linguistic endeavours. To meet the demands of our rapidly evolving world, educators must learn how to integrate these skills into their classroom instruction, preparing students to face the challenges of the modern era. This is particularly crucial when considering the diverse and expanding student populations, including bilingual and neurodivergent students, who will shape our future.
Ultimately, the goal is to develop a generation of educators who are prepared to meet the challenges posed by a diverse student population, equipping all students, including neurodiverse bilingual special education students, with the tools they need to succeed in an increasingly complex world. Through comprehensive teacher preparation that integrates language development, special education and an understanding of neurodiversity, educators can help every student reach their maximum potential, ensuring they are ready to contribute to the global society of the 21st century.
Review of the literature
Issues, controversies, problems
The United States (US) is a country of great linguistic and cultural diversity (Greenfield 2016). This ethnic, racial, linguistic and neurodiversity diversification is evidenced most vividly among young and school-aged children and youth. The diversity of language, culture, ways of learning and cognitive differences that students bring to the learning experience continues to inspire educators to meet greater challenges in their teaching role. Neurodiversity, which recognises the natural variations in how individuals think, learn and process information – such as students with autism, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), dyslexia and other learning differences – adds an additional layer of complexity to the classroom dynamic. As students’ cognitive profiles become more diverse, educators must be prepared to understand and respond to the unique ways these students learn, alongside their linguistic and cultural differences. This broad diversity requires teachers and administrators to develop a more nuanced understanding of how neurodivergent students experience learning alongside their peers, particularly those who speak languages other than English at home.
In this context, effective teaching must integrate strategies that support language learning, cultural responsiveness and neurodivergent learners’ unique cognitive profiles. Teachers must be prepared to differentiate their instruction, create inclusive classroom environments and offer personalised learning experiences that address both linguistic and neurodiversity challenges. By doing so, educators can help all students, including bilingual special education students and neurodivergent learners, to realise their full potential in the 21st-century educational landscape.
This article focuses on the intersection of special education and bilingual teacher preparation skills, dispositions and knowledge. To successfully teach bilingual special education students, educators must be well prepared in multiple areas. Initially, they must possess a comprehensive understanding of special education laws and effective teaching strategies for students with disabilities, including the application of Individualised Education Plans (IEPs), behaviour management techniques and differentiated instruction strategies tailored to each student’s unique needs.
Teachers must also be equipped to address neurodiversity in their classrooms. Neurodivergent learners bring unique cognitive profiles to the classroom that can complicate the process of bilingual education. Neurodiversity emphasises the idea that cognitive differences are a natural part of human variation and should be respected and embraced in the classroom. For bilingual special education teachers, understanding how these neurodivergent students process language and information is crucial for providing the right supports.
As educators gain knowledge in both special education and bilingual instruction and as they adopt attitudes of inclusivity and respect for neurodiversity, they will be better equipped to create classrooms that not only address the needs of bilingual students with disabilities but also empower them to thrive. Knowledge across multiple disciplines – special education, second language acquisition, literacy development and neurodiversity – enables teachers to provide a holistic approach to preparing educators to meet the needs of an increasingly diverse student population. This preparation will enable educators to create inclusive, equitable classrooms that foster success for all learners, particularly those who face the challenges of navigating both language acquisition and disabilities.
Furthermore, teachers must develop a mindset of inclusivity and respect for neurodiversity. Educators who understand that cognitive differences are a natural part of human diversity will be better prepared to create classrooms where all students, regardless of their learning profiles, feel valued and supported. Preparing teachers to effectively teach bilingual special education students, especially those with disabilities and neurodivergent traits, requires a comprehensive approach to educator training. This includes a strong foundation in bilingual education, special education laws and strategies, second language acquisition, literacy development and neurodiversity. For neurodivergent learners, the use of their native language can provide a sense of familiarity and stability, helping them process new information and reduce cognitive overload. In these cases, native language instruction serves as a vital bridge for both cognitive and emotional support.
The tendency to prioritise second language immersion may stem from a lack of teacher training or insufficient mastery of the native languages spoken in the classroom. Teachers may feel unprepared to use the native language effectively in instructional practices, particularly when it comes to addressing the specific needs of neurodivergent learners. For instance, a student with dyslexia may struggle more with a second language if foundational concepts in their first language are not well established. Similarly, neurodivergent learners with autism may find it more difficult to navigate a second language immersion environment if they have not yet built language proficiency in their home language. Teachers must understand that language development, both in the native language and second language, is a cumulative process that requires thoughtful scaffolding, particularly when working with students who have diverse cognitive and emotional profiles. To better serve bilingual students with disabilities, teacher training programmes must address these gaps by providing more comprehensive preparation in both native language teaching and special education strategies. This training should emphasise the importance of using the native language as a tool for learning and how to integrate this approach alongside second language acquisition practices. Teachers must be equipped with the skills to recognise how neurodivergent learners process language and how to use the native language to support their cognitive development and academic growth. This includes teaching strategies that are not only linguistically appropriate but also sensitive to the unique learning profiles of neurodiverse students.
The role of neurodiversity is integral to this conversation. Many bilingual special education students are neurodivergent, and their cognitive profiles may affect how they learn in both languages. Teachers need to be prepared to recognise and support the neurodiverse needs of their students, including those with conditions such as ADHD, dyslexia, autism or learning disabilities. For these students, bilingual instruction can be particularly beneficial, but it requires tailored strategies that address their unique ways of processing information and engaging with learning materials.
For instance, neurodivergent students may benefit from the use of multi-sensory teaching methods that engage different senses, making the learning process more accessible. Visual supports, hands-on activities and technology-based tools can help neurodivergent students better understand complex concepts, particularly when they are learning in two languages. Teachers must also be equipped to adapt their teaching methods to accommodate neurodivergent learners who may have difficulties with attention regulation, social interaction or sensory processing. This individualised approach can make bilingual instruction more effective for neurodivergent students, helping them succeed academically while developing linguistic skills. Incorporating neurodiversity into teacher training programmes for bilingual special education is essential. Teachers should be trained not only in second language acquisition and special education methodologies but also in the principles of neurodiversity, which promote the understanding that cognitive differences should be respected and supported. This will enable teachers to create inclusive and responsive classrooms that cater to the needs of all students, including those who are bilingual and neurodivergent.
Research question
How do educators adapt instructional strategies to support the academic and linguistic development of neurodiverse bilingual students in inclusive classroom settings?
Research methods and design
This study employed a qualitative systematic literature review approach to identify, analyse and synthesise best practices from the fields of special education and bilingual education. The goal was to uncover evidence-based strategies that support the academic and linguistic development of students who are both bilingual and have special educational needs.
A comprehensive search of peer-reviewed journal articles, books and policy documents was conducted using academic databases such as ERIC, JSTOR, PsycINFO and Google Scholar. The search focused on literature published between 2000 and 2024 to capture contemporary practices and perspectives. Keywords included combinations of the following: ‘special education’, ‘bilingual education’, ‘English learners with disabilities’, ‘dual language learners’, ‘inclusive education’, ‘response to intervention’ and ‘differentiated instruction’.
A comprehensive search of peer-reviewed journal articles, books and policy documents was conducted using academic databases such as ERIC, JSTOR, PsycINFO and Google Scholar. The search focused on literature published between 2000 and 2024 to capture contemporary practices and perspectives. Keywords included combinations of the following: ‘special education’, ‘bilingual education’, ‘English learners with disabilities’, ‘dual language learners’, ‘inclusive education’, ‘response to intervention’ and differentiated instruction’. Studies were included if they met the following inclusion criteria: (1) Published in English between 2000 and 2024; (2) focused on K-12 education settings; (3) addressed instructional or support practices for students identified as both bilingual or multilingual and having a disability and (4) provided empirical data or practitioner-based recommendations relevant to classroom practice or policy implementation.
The selected studies were coded using thematic analysis. Key themes and practices were extracted based on relevance, frequency and consistency across sources. The synthesis process involved triangulating findings to identify overlapping strategies and principles, as well as domain-specific practices that could be adapted for dual-identified learners.
Bilingual special education
Bilingual special education fosters learning with an emphasis on the use of both the native language and the second language for academic and sociocultural development (Baca & Cervantes 2004; Rodríguez 2016). This dual-language approach supports cognitive development and empowers students to succeed academically while simultaneously enhancing their social and cultural identities. When considering neurodiversity, bilingual special education becomes even more essential, as students with diverse cognitive profiles – including neurodivergent students – benefit from using both languages in ways that build on their unique strengths. Using the Bilingual Special Education Foundation, educators are encouraged to think about lesson planning in three phases: before, during and after learner engagement, encompassing the entire teaching cycle. This approach provides a structured framework that guides teachers to plan and deliver lessons in a manner that is inclusive and sensitive to the needs of bilingual special education students. Importantly, these students’ biographies – such as their cultural backgrounds, language experiences and neurodiverse characteristics – must be taken into account when designing instructional practices. Understanding these factors helps teachers create an environment that both respects and nurtures the students’ full identities, making it easier for neurodivergent learners to connect with the material and feel supported in the learning proc.
This framework also emphasises native language development, ensuring that vocabulary instruction occurs in both the students’ first and second languages, which is especially important for neurodivergent learners who may find it easier to process complex academic concepts in their native language. By promoting bilingual vocabulary instruction, teachers help students build foundational language skills that are transferable across both languages. Furthermore, the development of engaging literacy instruction becomes crucial for fostering reading, writing and critical thinking skills. For neurodivergent students, literacy instruction may need to be adapted to include multi-sensory approaches, visual supports or individualised interventions to help them overcome challenges related to attention, focus or processing speed. This approach supports both bilingualism and neurodiversity, ensuring that all students, regardless of their cognitive profiles, have access to quality instruction.
The essential components of bilingual special education include: (1) the use of two languages by both the students and the teachers; (2) the role of the teacher in affirming the diversity of the student population represented in the classroom; (3) the development of critical thinking skills in both languages; (4) the manifestation of equitable instruction aligned with 21st-century standards and (5) language and literacy development (Klingner et al. 2014). Each of these components plays a critical role in ensuring that bilingual special education students – particularly those who are neurodivergent – receive the support they need to thrive academically, socially and emotionally.
Moreover, equitable instruction aligned with 21st-century standards requires that teachers adapt their teaching strategies to meet the diverse needs of all learners, including those who may face challenges related to cognitive processing, attention or social interaction. For neurodivergent learners, this may mean implementing personalised learning tools, providing extra time for tasks or using assistive technologies that enhance language acquisition and literacy development. As teachers work to align their instruction with the needs of their bilingual special education students, they must also remain flexible and open to adjusting their strategies to suit the unique ways that neurodivergent learners interact with the curriculum.
Bilingual special education, when combined with an understanding of neurodiversity, offers a powerful framework for supporting all students, including those with disabilities and unique cognitive profiles. By incorporating both languages into the instructional process and adopting inclusive, equitable teaching practices, educators can create classrooms that empower bilingual learners, foster critical thinking and address the needs of neurodivergent students. This approach enables all students to thrive in the 21st century, preparing them for academic success and active participation in a diverse, interconnected world. By utilising neurodiversity-aware strategies – like offering visual, auditory and kinaesthetic supports, as well as personalised learning pathways – teachers can support all students, regardless of their cognitive or linguistic challenges, by providing access to meaningful, engaging and effective instruction. The use of technology further aids in creating a flexible learning environment where neurodiverse students can interact with content in ways that are most suitable for their unique learning profiles, ultimately fostering better engagement and achievement for all students.
Neurodiversity and bilingual special education: A conceptual framework
The research is grounded in sociocultural theory (Vygotsky 1978) and culturally and linguistically responsive pedagogy. Vygotsky’s theory emphasises the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning, which is especially relevant for bilingual learners with disabilities. Additionally, the framework draws on Bilingual Education Theory and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) to inform inclusive practices that support diverse learners.
Many bilingual special education teachers are seeking options, alternative approaches to teaching this population. As Baca and Cervantes (2004) stated:
[D]evelopers of bilingual special education programs need to weigh three factors for each student: degree of disability; level of language proficiency in both English and the primary language; and intellectual capacity. (p. 58)
To provide an appropriate educational context for bilingual special education, teachers need theoretical and methodological foundations in bilingual education as well as special education. As neurodiversity continues to gain recognition, it is essential that educators consider it alongside the dynamics of bilingualism. We are moving forward to the next level in teacher preparation by adding into the literature a conceptual framework (Figure 1) of the intersectionality of: (1) equity access to academic instruction; (2) knowledge, skills and disposition and (3) language literacy development. This integrates the concept of neurodiversity and its importance in bilingual special education contexts.
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FIGURE 1: Neurodiversity and bilingual special education foundations. |
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Equitable access to academic instruction
Policies have been promulgated to promote educational equity for both students who are ELs and for those who have disabilities. These policies and practices vary among states based on their history and cultural aspects that shape their views as to how best to provide equitable access to members of these two populations. The influence of history and culture, according to Ferretti and Eisenman (2010), ‘is especially evident in discussions of educational equity, questions that continue to haunt policy makers, practitioners and researchers alike’ (p. 379). This is especially significant when trying to address the equitable needs of a diverse population, such as bilingual special education students, who represent an underserved population with multiple challenges. García (2009) stated, ‘meaningful bilingual pedagogy revolves around the issue of equity – equity for students, their languages, and the cultures and communities’ (p. 319). Hence, the author adds the area of bilingual special education to be included in the equity and justice for bilingual students with disabilities. This means that educators ensure that bilingual special education students, regardless of language level proficiency, disability or neurodiversity, participate in school equally. Pedagogy that is based on equity ensures that bilingual special education students have access to all curricula and programmes (García 2009; Wang & Wolf 2015). By embracing neurodiversity, educators recognise and support the unique cognitive profiles and learning needs of students, further promoting inclusive and equitable practices for all learners.
21st-century standards
The 21st century possesses many challenges for all learners, but more so for students who are bilingual special education learners. According to the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (Partners for the 21st Century 2019), for students to succeed in college, career and life in the 21st century, students must be supported in mastering both content and skills. Now, more than ever, the education we provide our youth must meet the needs of a future defined by constant innovation and change (Ford, Stuart & Vakil 2014). Teachers are key in providing all learners, including bilingual special education students, the competence and flexibility they need to succeed in the 21st century. Specifically, what should new teachers of bilingual special education learners need to know to prepare their students for the challenges of the 21st century?
Social justice
Social justice is a vital tenet of bilingual special education pedagogy because it combines teaching in two languages and addressing disabilities. Educational systems in the US emphasise equality in education for all children regardless of ethnic, cultural, linguistic origin or disability. Equality of education means providing students with the opportunity to learn in a language that they understand and through which they are able to demonstrate learning. García (2009) commented on the potent element of social justice, which is advocating for bilingual learners. Learning a second language takes time and students’ native language can serve as a tool to help students acquire the knowledge, content and skills of the grade-level curriculum.
Kea, Campbell-Whatley and Richards (2006) affirmed that culturally responsive teaching includes: (1) sociocultural consciousness; (2) an affirming attitude toward students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds; (3) commitment and skills to act as an agent of change; (4) constructivist views of learning; (5) learning about students and (6) culturally responsive teaching strategies. We propose the same lens for bilingual special education learners. Additionally, understanding neurodiversity is crucial within this framework, as students’ cognitive processing differences play a significant role in how they acquire and demonstrate language skills. Embracing neurodiversity means recognising that cognitive differences – whether related to a learning disability, ADHD, autism or other neurological differences – can shape how bilingual special education students learn and interact with the curriculum.
Intellectual capacity
In the context of neurodiversity, Baca and Cervantes (2004) stress that the intellectual capacity of learners can vary significantly, influencing their ability to process and understand information. This variability means that students with different intellectual capacities may demonstrate a wide range of abilities in language acquisition and cognitive processing. Intellectual capacity, which encompasses the ability to comprehend, memorise, reason, problem-solve, analyse and think abstractly, plays a critical role in how students engage with educational content (Baca & Cervantes n.d.).
One key aspect of neurodiversity in the classroom is recognising that each student’s cognitive structure may be shaped by factors such as comparative thinking, symbolic representation and logical reasoning. Garner (2007) asserts that these cognitive structures allow students to make sense of information by establishing connections, identifying patterns and abstracting principles. While all students utilise these structures, their ability to engage with them effectively varies depending on their intellectual capacity and learning needs. It is vital for educators to tailor instruction to support these differences, enabling students to process information in ways that align with their cognitive strengths.
This perspective aligns with a neurodiverse approach, acknowledging that students’ cognitive and linguistic abilities are interconnected and that one-size-fits-all teaching strategies are not effective for bilingual special education students. Educators must differentiate their approaches to accommodate a variety of learning needs and ensure that students’ intellectual and cultural differences are recognised and respected. Understanding these cognitive processes, educators must be prepared to employ strategies that support the executive functions of students – higher-level cognitive skills necessary for goal setting, planning, problem solving and memory (Cooper-Kahn & Dietzel 2008; Wilson & Conyers 2016).
The use of scaffolding strategies, Specially Designed Instruction (SDI) and UDL are crucial for supporting bilingual special education students with diverse intellectual and linguistic abilities. Scaffolding provides temporary assistance to guide learners towards greater independence, while SDI adapts teaching methods to meet the unique needs of each student (Gibbons 2002; Riccomini, Morano & Hughes 2017). These strategies help ensure that all students, regardless of their cognitive or linguistic abilities, have access to meaningful learning experiences.
Knowledge, skills and dispositions
Knowledge, skills and dispositions are critically important characteristics for educators working with bilingual special education learners. What does it mean to possess knowledge, skills and dispositions? Research on effective teaching has provided information about the necessary skills, knowledge and attitudes needed by teachers in the US (Greenfield 2016). Knowledge about bilingual development is essential in designing effective instruction and interventions that are resourceful and meaningful to bilingual special education students. In addition to these competencies, it is increasingly important to integrate an understanding of neurodiversity. This includes understanding how neurodiversity – whether through ADHD, autism, dyslexia or other neurological differences – impacts language acquisition, learning styles and classroom behaviour.
Language differences and disability
A common misconception and misunderstanding between language differences and language disabilities stem from the many similarities observed among bilingual students and students with disabilities. According to Klingner and Eppolito (2014), the following characteristics often confuse educators because they can appear in both bilingual students and those with disabilities: (1) difficulty following directions; (2) slow to process challenging language; (3) poor auditory memory; (4) difficulty concentrating; (5) easily distracted; (6) slow to process challenging language and (7) confusion with figurative language. These similarities often blur the lines between second language acquisition challenges and the symptoms of learning disabilities, making it difficult for educators to determine the root cause of a student’s struggles.
Understanding how bilingual students’ cognitive and linguistic abilities may be affected by the demands of learning a second language is crucial in preventing misdiagnosis. Neurodiversity highlights that students’ brains process and adapt to language differently – whether in their native language or a second language. This understanding can help educators recognise that some of the observed characteristics – such as difficulty following directions, slow language processing or confusion with figurative language – might not indicate a disability but rather reflect the natural challenges of acquiring a second language. Therefore, educators must approach these students with a dual lens: one that acknowledges the cognitive diversity inherent in neurodiverse learners and another that recognises the developmental trajectory of language acquisition. By understanding how these challenges are connected to the unique ways bilingual students process and acquire language, educators can make informed decisions about appropriate instructional strategies and supports.
The key to effective instruction for bilingual special education students lies in distinguishing between language acquisition challenges and actual learning disabilities. Teachers must be knowledgeable about neurodiversity and second language development, recognising that bilingual students may exhibit certain cognitive and behavioural traits that are part of the natural process of learning a second language. Understanding these differences ensures that educators can provide the appropriate support, avoiding the misinterpretation of behaviours and offering targeted interventions that address the unique needs of bilingual special education learners. The use of a student’s native language as the primary medium of instruction offers several advantages for neurodiverse learners, who may process information in unique and diverse ways because of varying cognitive profiles (García 2009; Rodríguez 2015; Wang & Wolf 2015).
Neurodiverse learners, in particular, may find it easier to connect new concepts and skills in their second language when these are built on a foundation of their home language. The capacity to transfer knowledge from the first language to the second language is a key cognitive process that supports academic success. Teachers and curriculum developers need to understand the psychological, linguistic and academic benefits of using both of the students’ languages as a mode of instruction. Such an approach not only leverages the student’s existing cognitive resources but also supports the development of executive functions – higher-level cognitive processes like memory, attention and problem solving – by engaging students in both languages (Hamayan et al. 2013; Jozwik, Cuenca-Carlino & Gardiner-Walsh 2020; Hull & Vaid 2007).
The conceptual framework for teaching bilingual special education students highlights the importance of understanding the neurodiverse nature of these learners and recognising the value of their home language as a key tool in their education. By employing a bilingual instructional approach, educators can leverage students’ cognitive strengths and facilitate better learning outcomes, ultimately leading to greater academic success and a reduction in the achievement gap.
Instructional solutions and recommendations
The intersectionality of bilingual and special education at its core is deeply connected to the best teaching practices for the acquisition of skills, knowledge and dispositions. When educators possess expertise in both bilingual education and special education, they are better equipped to individualise instruction and meet the diverse needs of bilingual special education students, particularly those with neurodiverse profiles. Understanding the unique cognitive, linguistic and emotional needs of neurodiverse students allows teachers to tailor their teaching methods to be both effective and inclusive. The intersection of these two fields enables educators to implement strategies that address the specific learning challenges that bilingual special education students may face, including language processing difficulties, attention issues and executive function deficits, which are often present in neurodiverse learners. Neurodiverse bilingual students have multiple opportunities to access content, as outlined in Figure 2.
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FIGURE 2: Neurodiversity bilingual special education teaching recommendations. |
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Supporting bilingual special education students, particularly those with neurodiverse profiles, requires a deep understanding of their linguistic and cognitive needs. By integrating specific instructional strategies that focus on language development, scaffolding and individualised support, educators can create an inclusive environment that allows these students to thrive (Kaczorowski & Howorth 2021; Lai & Widmar 2021).
Findings indicate that educators who integrate expertise from both bilingual education and special education are uniquely positioned to meet the complex needs of neurodiverse bilingual students. This intersectional approach enhances instructional effectiveness by individualising learning based on cognitive, linguistic and emotional profiles. Through this lens, educators can better address challenges such as language processing, attention regulation and executive function, ensuring that neurodiverse learners receive inclusive, accessible and equitable education. The framework promotes differentiated strategies and multiple content access points, as exemplified in Figure 2, fostering both academic growth and inclusive participation.
Conclusions
In conclusion, the research evidence, although limited as the author has presented, is clear and persuasive, as discussed throughout this article, that the use of the native language in special education instruction remains the most effective option for bilingual ELLs with disabilities. Furthermore, this conclusion becomes even more significant when considering neurodiversity – acknowledging that students with disabilities also experience a wide range of neurological and cognitive differences that must be accounted for in instruction. By addressing both the linguistic and neurological aspects of these students, educators can create a more inclusive and supportive learning environment. Therefore, the author emphasises the importance of implementing bilingual special education programmes for students whose dominant language is not English, particularly in a way that embraces and supports neurodiversity. The overall implication is that schools should prioritise native language instruction in special education for bilingual students and design these programmes to embrace neurodiversity, resulting in more equitable and effective education.
Teachers and new teacher candidates need to be well prepared to meet the challenges they will face when teaching a child with a disability who is also an EL. This preparation should not only focus on language acquisition but also on understanding the cognitive, neurological and emotional needs of bilingual special education students. Bilingual special education teachers need to be knowledgeable about language and literacy development as it relates to second language learners with disabilities, understanding how disabilities can affect both second language development and literacy.
Additionally, they should be equipped with a variety of research-based practices, strategies and supports to consider and use when planning for instruction, all while encouraging a mindset that embraces the unique strengths and challenges of bilingual special education students. This mindset must also recognise how neurodiversity plays a crucial role in shaping each student’s learning journey.
As educators, we need to ensure that we prepare our future teachers with the necessary knowledge and skills to reflect critically on why a student may not be learning, to understand how their neurological profile and language background intersect with their challenges and to adjust their teaching methods accordingly. Teachers should be able to teach in a way that is adaptive to how the student learns best, empowering them to become independent learners. Institutions of higher education and school districts that are committed to eliminating inequities in the instruction of bilingual special education students need to recognise how their policies and instructional programmes may be unintentionally preventing these students from achieving academically. Moreover, they need to reflect on how their current practices could be hindering new teacher candidates from acquiring the essential knowledge, skills and dispositions to address the complex, intersectional challenges faced by this population.
In a supportive, socially engaged environment, bilingual special education students can excel when provided with educational opportunities that target their unique linguistic, cultural, emotional and neurological needs. Embracing neurodiversity, alongside cultural and linguistic diversity, ensures that these students are not only given the resources to succeed but are also supported in thriving in ways that honour their individual identities and experience.
Contributions
The contribution the author recommends is for state education agencies and institutions of higher education to adopt policies that effectively prepare bilingual special education teachers with the knowledge, skills and dispositions necessary to provide equitable learning opportunities for bilingual special education students while also considering the importance of neurodiversity. Recognising neurodiversity – acknowledging and embracing the range of neurological differences such as ADHD, autism, dyslexia and other cognitive variations – will further enhance the inclusive nature of these teacher preparation programmes. This inclusion ensures that bilingual special education teachers are equipped not only to meet the needs of bilingual learners but also to adapt teaching strategies to support students with diverse neurological profiles.
There is an urgent need for more specific information about state-mandated certification requirements for bilingual special education teachers across all 50 states (Wang & Wolf 2015). This gap in knowledge affects the consistency and accessibility of high-quality educational support for bilingual special education students nationwide. As a result, it is suggested that state education agencies, institutions of higher learning and school districts collaborate to create programmes that prepare bilingual special education teachers to address the multifaceted academic and cognitive needs of these students.
In this context, it is essential that teacher preparation programmes include a focus on multiple perspectives in teaching bilingual special education. These programmes should incorporate instructional models, individualised instruction and an understanding of the role of both the first and second languages in learning. Additionally, a strong emphasis on cognitive skills, literacy development in the content areas and evidence-based practices should be central to these programmes. By preparing bilingual special education teachers with a comprehensive understanding of neurodiversity, the diverse linguistic backgrounds of their students and evidence-based teaching practices, we can create a more inclusive and equitable educational environment for all learners.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The author declares that she has no financial or personal relationship that may have inappropriately influenced her in writing this article.
Author’s contributions
D.R. is the sole author of this research article.
Ethical considerations
This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
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