The current South African Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) promotes integration through the use of interdisciplinary themes for teaching in the Foundation Phase but does not provide explicit guidelines on the application of this approach in literacy teaching.
The study aimed to investigate teachers’ current practices and the potential of an integrated approach in the teaching and learning of Grade 3 isiXhosa literacy.
The study was conducted in two primary schools located in the black townships of Cape Town, in the Western Cape province.
A case study design was used in this qualitative study. Classroom observations and semi-structured interviews with two Grade 3 teachers were used to collect data.
The findings indicate that teachers’ intuitive use of interactive and learner-centred pedagogical strategies fostered the implementation of the integrated approach in isiXhosa literacy, yet missed opportunities to develop higher-order thinking skills. The findings provide insights into the potential of this approach, given a greater focus on innovative and inclusive pedagogies and teacher professional development.
The study concludes that the integrated approach could play a significant role in enhancing learners’ conceptual, linguistic and emotional development when implemented correctly.
This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on African language literacy teaching and learning – an area that remains under-researched. It advances scholarship in early literacy pedagogy and provides valuable insights into the transformative potential of the integrated approach, thus informing future research and practice in African language literacy teaching and learning.
The integrated approach to education evolved as an area of research in the late 20th century and was adopted as an inclusive way of teaching and learning that discourages the division of knowledge into subjects (Beane
Drake and Savage (
In this article, we argue that the lack of explicit guidelines on the implementation of the integrated approach to literacy teaching is a pedagogical gap that might compromise the intended benefits of this approach. Therefore, this article explores teachers’ current pedagogical practices in implementing the integrated approach for isiXhosa literacy teaching and the prospects of this approach for enhancing literacy teaching in the Foundation Phase. It is guided by these two questions:
Guided by these research questions, the researchers analysed the strategies employed by teachers to implement the integrated approach and the prospects of this approach for literacy development in isiXhosa.
In curriculum guidance across the globe, there is no common definition of integration, with the term used interchangeably with ‘interdisciplinary’, ‘transdisciplinary’ and ‘multidisciplinary’ in describing the curriculum (Dowden
This article draws on three integration models – interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary and multidisciplinary – to understand the concept of integration. The interdisciplinary model intentionally integrates content from different subjects and disciplines (e.g. languages, mathematics) around specific themes or problems (Becker
The transdisciplinary model also promotes collaboration among teachers and other stakeholders, irrespective of disciplinary background and status, to solve social problems. This model takes a holistic and integrated approach to learning by combining concepts, knowledge and practices from different disciplines (Baumber et al.
With the multidisciplinary model, the same topic is studied from a variety of viewpoints in different disciplines, connected through cross-cutting themes (Pluim et al.
These different integration models indicate that knowledge may be co-constructed and integrated from different sources and perspectives; hence, the assertion that integrated teaching has no boundaries (John
The three models mentioned above align with the constructivist theory, pioneered by Piaget in the 1930s and augmented by Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (
The constructivist theory embraces learner-centred teaching strategies that stimulate learners’ critical thinking using a variety of interactive strategies that draw upon learners’ own funds of knowledge. Constructivist approaches encourage participation and self-expression (Teo & Zhou
In this article, the various integration models and the constructivist theory provide an appropriate lens through which to view both teacher and learner practices and the way in which teachers apply integration and constructivist principles in implementing the integrated approach to enhance learners’ literacy development. As literacy is defined as a cognitive and sociocultural construct (Bergbauer & Van Staden
Several international studies report on the benefits of using the integrated approach to teaching. For example, a comparative study at the University of Surabaya, Indonesia (Indana, Susantini & Bashri
Another study was conducted in elementary schools in Jakarta, Indonesia, by Syofyan et al. (
Several studies report on the challenges of implementing an integrated approach to teaching and learning. A study by Lam et al. (
While studies on integrated approaches have been conducted in South Africa, very few have focused on the teaching and learning of an African language. Gxekwa and Satyo (
The reviewed studies shed light on factors that enhance and constrain integrated teaching and the ways in which integration is planned and implemented in other countries. They also show the challenges associated with this approach. The literature reveals that research on an integrated approach to literacy development in an African language is limited, despite the promotion of this approach in the previous and current curricula of South Africa. This article seeks to fill this gap in the literature.
This study employed a qualitative research approach to collect data from two schools located in different townships in the Western Cape province, South Africa, where isiXhosa is used as a language of learning and teaching in the Foundation Phase. Qualitative studies seek to understand participants’ perspectives about issues and how they make sense of their experiences (Creswell
A sample was purposively selected from two primary schools (Schools A and B) located in black townships of Cape Town, in the Western province, South Africa. The sample was composed of two Grade 3 teachers who were home language speakers of isiXhosa and over the age of 45 years. Both held professional qualifications in teaching – a Primary Teachers’ Certificate and a Higher Diploma in Education, and, for one, a Bachelor of Arts degree. Both possessed over 21 years’ teaching experience.
The two Grade 3 teachers were selected because they were in an ideal position to provide rich information on the use of the integrated approach to teaching isiXhosa home language literacy in the Foundation Phase (FP). These teachers had undergone training in the current FP curriculum (known as CAPS), which promotes the use of the integrated approach for literacy teaching. They also taught all three subjects offered in this phase, namely Literacy, Mathematics and Life Skills, but classroom observations focused on how teachers integrated content from other subjects in literacy lessons.
Data were collected by means of classroom observations and semi-structured interviews. The two Grade 3 teachers from two different schools were observed to gain an in-depth understanding of their implementation of the integrated approach in isiXhosa home language literacy teaching. An open-ended observation protocol was used to document teacher–learner and learner–learner interactions during isiXhosa literacy lessons, as well as the pedagogical strategies teachers employed to implement the integrated approach. Field notes were taken to capture the richness of classroom interactions, including verbal and non-verbal communication, the use of teaching and learning resources and the physical layout of the classrooms. Six isiXhosa home language literacy lessons were observed in each school over a period of 6 months in order to gain deep insights into the use of integration to scaffold isiXhosa literacy learning.
An interview was conducted with each teacher to complement the observation data. The interviews were conducted after classroom observations in both schools, and some of the questions were based on the observation data to probe further into issues of interest or those requiring clarification. Each interview lasted approximately 30 min–45 min. The interview questions were semi-structured and elicited information on teacher practices in the use of the integrated approach in teaching isiXhosa literacy to Grade 3 learners. The aim was to understand their current practices and determine prospects for the use of this approach in isiXhosa literacy teaching and learning. Masoga, Shokane and Blitz (
Thematic analysis is commonly used to analyse qualitative data, revealing patterns within and across data that help to understand participants’ experiences and perspectives (Lochmiller
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of the Western Cape, Research Ethics Committee (No. HS19/2/8). Before conducting the study, permission to involve the two schools in the research was sought and granted from the principals, teachers and parents and from the Western Cape Education Department. Consent letters and information sheets were distributed to the teachers and the principals, informing them about the purpose of the study. Both teachers gave their voluntary written consent to participate in the study.
To protect the identities of the teachers and the schools, pseudonyms are used. The schools are referred to as Schools A and B and the teachers as Teacher A and Teacher B. The confidentiality and anonymity of the participants were ensured throughout the research process, and both participants were treated with respect.
The research findings presented here support the two themes that emerged from data analysis, and they address the research questions that guided the study. The broad themes that emerged from the analysed data relate to teachers’ pedagogical strategies and opportunities for innovative literacy practices.
The study findings revealed that the two Grade 3 teachers employed interactive pedagogical strategies to implement an integrated approach in their literacy teaching, making good use of cross-curricular themes and texts to scaffold learning, storytelling, collaboration, problem-solving and shared reading. The findings address the first research question and provide insights into teachers’ pedagogical strategies in isiXhosa literacy lessons.
The findings indicate that teachers did not integrate any Mathematics content into the literacy lessons that were observed, probably because the mathematical concepts are abstract and not directly relevant to the linguistic or communicative goals of literacy teaching. The findings also show that neither teacher struggled to integrate Life Skills content into their lessons through the use of cross-curricular themes and texts. Although there was no systematic planning for the integrated approach, teachers were able to scaffold learners’ understanding through questions. However, few of the questions stimulated learners’ higher-order thinking skills. The integration of life skills seemed to occur incidentally through reading stories, but assessment activities did not cater for integration, especially in written tasks.
The cross-curricular themes covered by the two teachers were celebrations [
These themes were introduced through texts, read by both the teachers and the learners. The themes incorporated knowledge from Geography and Natural Science and illustrated the possibility of drawing knowledge from different disciplines to enhance learners’ critical thinking (Pluim et al.
Regarding the theme of celebrations, Teacher A used a text about Mandela Day, celebrated on 18 July across the world. Teacher B focused on Valentine’s Day, celebrated on 14 February. In both cases, learners were asked to read the texts, which the teachers used as a springboard to assess learners’ understanding and application of knowledge in real-life situations.
Teachers also used the themes and texts to enhance learners’ writing skills. For example, both teachers focused on
In both schools, learners engaged actively with the texts through reading. Their social context was used to foster literacy learning through reading, with the teachers encouraging them to draw from their social knowledge and personal experience to make meaning of the lessons and develop conceptual skills. Learners were also provided with opportunities to explore different text types such as fiction and expository texts, which were used to enhance learners’ speaking, listening, reading and writing skills (e.g. writing a diary and organising facts).
The observation data were corroborated by the teachers in interviews, where they explained the significance of the themes and how they used them in literacy teaching and learning. Teacher A explained how she incorporated the learners’ social context through themes that depicted real-life examples about fire to teach learners about safety precautions. She said:
Teacher B explained how she used themes for integration:
Teachers selected themes that aligned with the learners’ lived experiences for meaningful engagement. In both cases, learners’ responses revealed that they had experiences of house fires and flooding in the informal settlements in which most of them resided. In this case, learners’ prior knowledge was used as a resource to make sense of the text.
The teachers used the stories in their textbook for different purposes, such as teaching grammar and vocabulary. For example, Teacher A read a story about a fire that broke out as a result of negligence and used questions to scaffold learners’ thinking about safety in the home. Through questions, she assessed learners’ vocabulary and their existing knowledge of the dangers of fire. The questions scaffolded and enhanced learners’ listening skills, but at a fairly low level. Similarly, Teacher B used a story on floods to teach aspects of grammar, such as synonyms. She targeted certain words in the text and asked for their synonyms to enrich the learners’ vocabulary, for example,
The story-based approach was therefore used to stimulate learners’ thinking and comprehension and to foster a learner-centred environment through the question-and-answer method, problem-solving and collaborative learning in the form of group work. However, Teacher B (TB) provided no feedback to learners to support or consolidate their responses and guide them into deeper thinking about the issues raised.
The teachers used the same texts to facilitate group discussions and problem-solving among the learners. For instance, Teacher A’s learners were asked to discuss the causes of fire in informal settlements and to come up with solutions not provided in the text. They were encouraged to visualise a fire before they answered her questions to stimulate their imaginations and prior knowledge. In small groups, learners discussed how they could prevent fires and protect themselves, thus enhancing their life skills. In this way, learners were encouraged to apply their knowledge to solve a particular problem through collaboration.
There was active engagement between the teachers and learners and among the learners themselves. The learners were able to express their views confidently and demonstrated their abilities to solve some of the social and infrastructural problems they encountered. The dialogical interaction seemed to help them think about their choices and make inferences based on their experiences, thus enhancing active learning and learner-centredness. This strategy fostered learners’ communication and problem-solving skills as they applied knowledge of what they had read to real-life situations.
The teachers used the same texts that imparted life lessons for shared reading and to foster listening and comprehension skills through the question-and-answer method. Some questions were asked before reading to test the learners’ prior knowledge although most did not stimulate the learners’ higher-order thinking. For example, Teacher A introduced her lesson by asking whether learners had ever seen a house on fire. Thereafter, Teacher A read the text twice as learners listened attentively and then asked questions to assess their understanding of it. Teacher B’s questions tested the learners’ understanding of
Both teachers followed the correct reading stages, namely pre-reading, during reading and post-reading, using the question-and-answer method to assess skills such as listening, reading, comprehension and language use, all of which were fostered using texts and assessment activities. This strategy aligns with one of the CAPS requirements – that shared reading should focus on the learning of different skills, such as word identification, phonics, text features and comprehension (DBE
The findings of this study show that there are promising prospects for enhancing the integrated approach to isiXhosa literacy teaching and learning in the Foundation Phase. These prospects include recognising the role of early literacy in the implementation of mother-tongue-based bilingual education, making greater use of African epistemologies (i.e. ways of knowledge grounded in African worldviews and cultures) and enhancing innovative and inclusive pedagogies through teacher professional development.
Firstly, integrated teaching approaches have implications for improved literacy outcomes as they promote a holistic approach to language development through listening, speaking, reading and writing (Barton & Hamilton
With the introduction of mother-tongue-based bilingual education (MTBBE) in the Intermediate Phase in South Africa, strengthening the teaching of African languages in the Foundation Phase is crucial, as it provides a strong foundational literacy to enhance the transition to English as the language of learning and teaching from Grade 4 onwards. It also enhances the development of key concepts for learning in all subject areas. An integrated approach using the learners’ home language can therefore strengthen their conceptual and cognitive development, improve their vocabulary and develop skills in other languages.
Secondly, in the case of African languages used for teaching and learning in the Foundation Phase, cross-curricular integration presents opportunities to incorporate African epistemologies, not only in the language used but also in affirmation of learners’ cultures and identities. This approach could yield long-term cognitive benefits and inclusive educational environments that recognise learners’ lived experiences and sociocultural backgrounds as useful resources in learning, thus bridging the gap between home and school literacies and enhancing learners’ abilities in all subjects.
Thirdly, the use of integrated approaches in isiXhosa literacy teaching and learning presents opportunities for teacher development, which could focus on more innovative and reflective practices in their pedagogy. Teachers should collaborate across disciplines and be able to develop relevant and interdisciplinary materials of their own. This could be achieved through ongoing teacher professional development programmes and revisiting pre-service teacher training curricula to incorporate aspects of integration across the curriculum, including the integration of new technologies and artificial intelligence (AI) into the teaching of early literacy in African languages, thus enhancing multiliteracies.
Fourthly, various policies support an integrated approach to teaching and learning in South Africa. For example, CAPS promotes an integrated approach to teaching and learning in the Foundation Phase (DBE
Fifthly, there are many research avenues that could be explored to advance the use of an integrated approach in literacy teaching and learning. For example, a study on the use of this approach in multilingual and under-resourced educational settings would be valuable. Future research could also focus on how integration enhances young learners’ digital literacy skills, and longitudinal studies could provide insights into the long-term impacts of well-applied integrated approaches on learners’ literacy development in African languages. It would be useful to explore teacher professional development models that support the effective implementation of the integrated approach in the classroom.
This section discusses the key findings on the teachers’ implementation of the integrated approach in isiXhosa literacy lessons, in relation to the research questions and existing literature.
Firstly, it was observed that the integrated approach was practised by the two teachers. Sunarti et al. (
The findings of the study corroborate Pompson’s (
The integrated approach is crucial for language and literacy learning as it enhances a variety of language skills such as listening, speaking and critical thinking and exposes learners to other subjects. It also facilitates learner-centred activities and aligns with Vygotsky’s theory (
The integrated approach observed in this study also aligns with the constructivist recognition of learners’ prior knowledge as a significant resource in mediating knowledge construction (Taber
Secondly, it is notable that themes and learners’ social contexts are regarded as the fundamental elements of integration in the Foundation Phase literacy curriculum (DBE
Both teachers integrated Life Skills in the form of familiar themes and texts to enhance learners’ holistic development through reading, writing and reasoning, as suggested in the CAPS document (DBE
Thirdly, both teachers used collaborative and problem-solving approaches through group work that enhanced dialogical and problem-solving skills. Problem-solving approaches stimulate learners’ cognitive skills and provide them with opportunities to build their own knowledge (Syofyan et al.
Fourthly, the findings indicate the value of texts and stories in facilitating integrated instruction. Both teachers focused on comprehension and vocabulary development using texts and stories. Stories may be aligned with themes to achieve a number of educational goals, such as scaffold learning, and to facilitate learners’ reflective thinking (Davoudi & Sadeghi
Fifthly, shared reading is regarded as one of the key elements of the co-construction of meaning in learning. Shared reading aligns with the constructivist view that learning is a sociocultural practice fostered through social interaction (Mutekwe
Sixthly, while there are no explicit guidelines for implementing integrated approaches in CAPS, the teachers followed some of the principles of integration in their lessons with regard to the teaching and learning of literacy in the Foundation Phase. This entailed the incorporation of Life Skills into the reading and discussing of stories, and their proper use of the reading phases, namely pre-reading, during reading and post-reading. Their lessons fostered a variety of language skills, such as listening, speaking, reading and writing and used themes, texts, stories and assessment activities. In this regard, it could be said that teachers displayed pedagogical and professional competence and a sound understanding of learner-centred approaches. They also exhibited a capacity to draw on learners’ knowledge and experiences to implement interdisciplinary learning and to adapt their practices to meet their learners’ needs.
Despite the small sample, this article presents useful findings that uncover the pedagogical strategies used by teachers to integrate different subject areas in literacy instruction in the Foundation Phase. The findings shed light on how teachers’ intuitive decision-making guided their teaching practice, given that there are no explicit guidelines in CAPS for implementing the integrated approach in literacy instruction. These findings have pedagogical implications for teachers, particularly in transforming isiXhosa home language literacy teaching through the incorporation of indigenous knowledge, concepts and themes that cut across learning areas or disciplines. The use of culturally relevant materials such as isiXhosa folktales, idioms and proverbs within an integrated approach can affirm learners’ identities and connect literacy learning to their lived experiences, rather than treating literacy as an isolated skill. Integrating language skills, namely listening, speaking, reading and writing, could further enhance learners’ oral skills, vocabulary development and comprehension, which are crucial for literacy development. Through the integrated approach, teachers can also draw on oral, visual and digital texts to strengthen learners’ meaning making and communicative competence.
This article has also shown that the integrated approach contributes to transformative literacy instruction in African languages, currently an under-researched area. This approach has the potential to enhance learners’ conceptual, linguistic and emotional development when implemented correctly, especially if teachers are shown ways to develop more higher-order thinking skills among their learners. There is a need for constant teacher professional development that explicitly supports teachers in integrating cross-curricular knowledge in creative ways.
This article includes content that overlaps with research originally conducted as part of Thembisa Kosi’s doctoral thesis titled ‘Cross-curricular connections: The use of the integrated and thematic-based approach for Grade 3 isiXhosa home language literacy in selected Western Cape primary schools’, submitted to the Faculty of Education, University of the Western Cape in 2024. The thesis was supervised by Vuyokazi Nomlomo. Portions of the data, analysis and discussion have been revised, updated and adapted for publication as a journal article. The original thesis is publicly available at:
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Thembisa Kosi: Conceptualisation, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Project administration, Data curation. Vuyokazi Nomlomo: Resources, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Funding acquisition. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussion of results, approved the final version for submission and publication and take responsibility for the integrity of its findings.
There are no restrictions on data availability. The data supporting the findings of this study can be obtained from the corresponding author, Vuyokazi Nomlomo, upon reasonable request.
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.