Abstract
Background: Strengthening learner engagement during the early years of mathematics education is crucial for mathematical success. A significant challenge is to transform primary classrooms from teacher-centred spaces to ones where learners are motivated to participate and to enjoy the mathematics they need to learn. In trying to address this challenge, the authors collaborated with an external organisation, Numeric, to introduce engagement strategies to enhance motivation and cognitive engagement among participants who were peer tutors for a primary mathematics course.
Aim: The purpose of this study was to explore the 15 tutors’ perceptions of their professional growth in terms of motivation and cognitive engagement following their involvement in a tutor development programme. The programme trainers embedded activities that helped tutors develop practical classroom management skills while facilitating energisers and computational fluency tasks.
Setting: A development programme for student tutors who support students doing Foundation and Intermediate Phase mathematics.
Methods: The research instruments were made up of a questionnaire, a focus group interview and WhatsApp conversations. Pre-test and post-test comparisons showed that participation in the intervention significantly improved the tutors’ fluency in mathematical computations.
Results: The tutors’ reflections on their own professional growth helped them recognise the value of learner engagement strategies for classroom practice. The tutors also learnt from the facilitators’ effective modelling of engagement-oriented strategies.
Conclusion: The study illustrates that pre-service teachers (PSTs) are receptive to learner engagement activities that can potentially transform primary mathematics classrooms while enhancing cognitive engagement.
Contribution: The study contributes to knowledge of how well-designed engagement strategies in teacher education can foster cognitive, affective and professional benefits in the teacher education setting.
Keywords: primary pre-service teachers; mathematics education; energiser; tutors; foundation phase.
Introduction
Mathematics in the early grades plays a pivotal role in shaping a child’s logical reasoning and critical thinking skills. However, persistent disparities in access, coupled with socio-economic inequalities, have led to a widespread learning crisis, particularly in early mathematics. These poor outcomes in mathematics in South Africa have led to a renewed focus on improving mathematics teaching (Bansilal, Brijlall & Mkhwanazi 2014; Roberts, Moloi & Mort 2024). There have been concerted efforts in South Africa to target improvement in pre-service teacher (PST) programmes especially for Foundation and Intermediate Phase (FIP) teaching specialists (Roberts et al. 2024). In the short time that PSTs spend at a higher education institution, it is important for teacher educators to help students learn how to transform their classrooms into active learning centres rather than promoting the traditional teacher-centred classes that they were used to. In this regard, research has highlighted the importance of improving engagement in the early years of schooling (Stott et al. 2017).
However, there are many challenges, such as the large increase in student participation in higher education (Ramrathan 2016). Within this scenario of large classes, it is challenging to ensure that students have exposure to innovative teaching strategies and opportunities to improve their content knowledge. At our institution, we opted to use student tutors to work more intensively with PSTs by offering weekly 90-min tutorials in smaller groups where peer tutors are more likely to understand students’ problems in a non-judgemental and less authoritarian way (Topping 2005).
Like teachers, tutors also need support to teach effectively. With this in mind, the authors collaborated with Numeric, which is an organisation that focuses on improving foundational mathematics skills in Grades 6 and 7 by drawing upon PSTs as coaches, to offer a 3-day training programme for the tutors. The tutor training programme focused on improving the content and pedagogic knowledge as well as strengthening the affective domain recognising that teachers’ beliefs, motivation, confidence and attitudes are central to their effectiveness of their teaching (Kaplan & Madjar 2017). Furthermore, recent studies show the importance of affective teacher–student relations for students’ positive social functioning, learning engagement and achievement (Roorda et al. 2011). In this study, we conceptualise student’s academic engagement as the quality and quantity of students’ time and effort invested in learning activities which is considered within a multidimensional perspective that encompasses behavioural, emotional and cognitive components (Kaplan & Madjar 2017; Roorda et al. 2011; Wang et al. 2024). Accordingly, we consider engagement strategies as those techniques, approaches or activities that can focus and maintain students’ attention, keep students on track, build up flagging energy levels, deepen engagement levels or improve and sustain motivation.
As part of the programme, tutors were introduced to a range of engagement strategies that they could use as tools in their classroom. An underlying assumption of the programme and study was that the tutors need to experience the engagement strategies as learners before they could implement it in their tutorial sessions or later in their classrooms as teachers. In our study, we sought to gain deeper insight into how specific activities could influence intrinsic motivation and engagement in student learning. The study is underpinned by the self-determination theory (SDT) (Ryan & Deci 2017) which theorises that the psychological need to feel competent, autonomous and connected to others must be satisfied in order for learners to be intrinsically motivated and optimally engaged. Guided by this theoretical lens, the study addressed the following research question: What are the tutors’ perceptions of how the programme with its focus on learner engagement strategies contributed to their personal motivation and engagement in learning?
It is envisaged that the study can provide insights on how these carefully selected learner engagement strategies could motivate students to sustain their cognitive engagement in mathematics learning. As argued by Ryan and Deci (2017), activating PSTs’ intrinsic motivation is critical so that they can take control of their learning which additionally fosters life-long learning that is essential for professional development in teacher education (Thwe & Kálmán 2024). Hence, the study contributes to knowledge of how carefully designed engagement strategies in teacher education can foster cognitive, affective and professional benefits in the teacher education setting.
Literature review
Mathematics in the early grades is widely recognised as critical in shaping a child’s quantitative aptitude, logical reasoning and critical thinking skills. However South Africa faces significant challenges in this area. Research indicates that a large percentage of South African students are not meeting the desired proficiency levels in basic numeracy and mathematical concepts (Reddy et al. 2020). The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) revealed that South African Grade 5 learners are among the lowest performers out of 64 countries when it comes to mathematics (Reddy et al. 2020). The critical need for effective interventions to support FIP teachers is underscored by the most recent TIMSS (study done in 2023) study which ranked South African Grade 5 learners the lowest performing internationally.
Research points to the struggles experienced by preservice teachers with mathematics (Bansilal & Ubah 2020). Many mathematics teachers in particular, PSTs, have a poor understanding about whole numbers, fractions and fraction operations (Bansilal & Ubah 2020; Chinnappan & Forrester 2014). Furthermore, international research shows that pre-service primary teachers often experience high mathematics anxiety, low confidence in teaching the subject and limited mathematics teaching self-efficacy (Wilson 2013). There is a need to address and reduce mathematics anxiety among PSTs, because this can be transmitted to learners, perpetuating a cycle of negative attitudes towards mathematics (Beilock et al. 2010; Furner & Berman 2005).
The South African context adds an additional dimension to the concerns articulated about teacher knowledge in mathematics. Since the onset of the democratic era, the higher education sector has expanded rapidly (Bansilal & Ubah 2020). Statistics shared by the South African Institute of Race Relations show that the higher education sector has almost doubled in the post-apartheid period; this can be seen as a positive development in an effort to reverse inequitable apartheid practices. However, this rapid growth and large demand for qualified teachers have resulted in the recruitment of many students who enter the teaching field with below average performance and may have weak subject content knowledge (Bowie & Reed 2016; Deacon 2016; Taylor 2011). The poor knowledge background of future teachers presents a challenge to teacher education institutions who must try to break the ‘cycle of mediocrity, where school leavers, who were themselves poorly taught are returned to the schools as poorly prepared teachers’ (Deacon 2016:25) (Bansilal & Ubah 2020). Notably, the relaxed admission criteria and increased participation in higher education by non-traditional and often under-prepared students triggered a higher demand for peer tutoring (Clarence 2023). In the institution where this study was conducted, the context of rapid growth of pre-service students led to very large classes of over 500 students enrolled for the FIP. Hence, in this setting, preparing teachers to teach effectively seemed to be an elusive goal because of the limited opportunities for interaction between lecturers and students.
A strategy employed was to use student tutors to provide more focused support to students in smaller groups. Experienced student tutors can play a mentoring role to other novice students when they engage in peer tutoring. Within higher education this is possible, when gifted or academically proficient students help less able students to learn in cooperative working pairs or small groups carefully organised by a professional teacher (Topping 2005). Peer tutoring is involved when peer tutors provide additional support to what is offered by the lecturer. The peer tutors are themselves students, usually postgraduate but in some cases senior undergraduate students (Clarence 2023; Underhill & McDonald 2010). Peer tutors are usually selected using the criteria of prior experience in tutoring, subject knowledge and willingness to be part of tutoring (Clarence 2023), which was the case in this study.
Numerous studies have focused on tutors or facilitators’ knowledge and pedagogic content knowledge (Bansilal 2014; Bansilal et al. 2012). Fewer studies have focused on tutoring in mathematics which helps tutors transform their practices from routine and traditional to more learner centred with increased engagement, autonomy and nurturing of students’ affective development (Mhakure 2020). The norm is that tutors are given important teaching and learning work to accomplish and they are rarely given professional and support opportunities (Bansilal 2014).
Many studies point to the importance of teacher–student relations and their association with student well-being and achievement (Cornelius-White 2007; Roorda et al. 2011; Skinner & Belmont 1993). Positive teacher–student relations support learning engagement and helps students to cope with the demands of the school environment (Rey et al. 2007). Roorda et al. (2011) in their meta-analysis of 99 studies found significant associations of both positive and negative teacher–student relations with both student engagement as well as achievement. A similar study by Cornelius-White (2007) focused on the influence of teacher behaviour and students’ cognitive outcomes. There was a substantial association between affective teacher variables (such as empathy and warmth) and more instructional variables such as encouraging learning and higher-order thinking and student outcomes (Cornelius-White 2007). These studies point to the importance of not neglecting the affective dimensions in professional development programmes. That is, professional development support for tutors, which typically focuses on strengthening content and pedagogical content knowledge, should also include guidance on how they can draw upon resources to nurture students’ affective development.
A recent study (Lin et al. 2025) illustrates that suitable and relevant training can lead to improvements in tutors’ teaching skills and enhancements in both learners’ and tutors’ learning. In their study, Lin et al. (2025) showed that structured pedagogical training for peer tutors enhances their teaching skills, engagement strategies and communication, leading to greater tutee satisfaction and an enhancement of critical thinking skills and academic confidence in both the tutors and tutees. Their study highlighted the importance of formal tutor training in creating effective and immersive learning environments and advocates for policy change to include formal pedagogical training of tutors at higher education.
Theoretical framework
Self-determination theory focuses on the role of the social environment in promoting autonomous motivation, explaining that there are psychological needs of competence, autonomy and relatedness which must be satisfied in order to achieve optimal development and well-being (Ryan & Deci 2017). Self-determination theory emphasises the role of teachers’ support for students’ needs (Assor, Kaplan & Roth 2002; Reeve 2006). Learning environments which meet students’ needs can foster intrinsic motivation and student engagement in learning (Chiu 2021; Ryan & Deci 2017).
Autonomy refers to the desire to self-initiate and self-regulate one’s own behaviour, in other words, to engage in actions with a sense of personal choice and ownership, rather than external pressure or control (Ryan & Deci 2017). Teachers can support the need for autonomy by giving students the freedom to make their own choices while emphasising connections between studied material and students’ choices (Roorda et al. 2011); limiting the use of controlling language (Chiu 2021); and recognising the importance of the students’ perspective (Kaplan & Madjar 2017).
Competence refers to the need to feel effective in attaining valued outcomes, which in this case would include those aligned to mathematical and pedagogical skills, and to experience opportunities to exercise and express one’s capacities (Ryan & Deci 2017). Teachers support students’ need for competence by providing structure – that is, by setting clear rules and expectations, providing guidance and immediate and non-evaluative feedback (Connell & Wellborn 1991; Roorda et al. 2011) and consistent support that helps students understand how to succeed. When students experience such structure, they are more likely to feel capable and confident in mastering tasks, thereby satisfying their need for competence (Jang, Reeve & Deci 2010; Reeve 2013). Positive feedback that results in perceived competence by enhancing the competence need will enhance intrinsic motivation, if it is accompanied by some autonomy support (Ryan & Deci 2017). Competence support also includes providing effective challenges (Connell & Wellborn 1991). Hence, in a teacher training context, competence support should target building up content and pedagogical knowledge. It should also provide practical teaching experience using effective strategies to motivate student learning and engagement, alongside affective and reflective support that encourages learners to express themselves in a safe environment and helps them manage stress and anxiety.
Relatedness refers to the desire to feel connected to others and organisations. Teachers who provide relatedness support show involvement (a sense of caring and being interested in the students (Roorda et al. 2011); a willingness to help, and to try to create a non-competitive learning structure (Kaplan & Madjar 2017). Involved teachers will try to provide emotional and motivational support through pedagogical caring and acceptance (Chiu 2021). Such teacher practices make students feel welcome, safe, efficacious and autonomous; they internalise the positive experiences and increase their engagement levels in learning (Ryan & Deci 2017; Skinner & Belmont 1993). Teacher involvement forms part of the affective dimensions of teacher behaviour. By fostering relatedness, emotional security is enhanced (Roorda et al. 2011) which may explain why teacher involvement seems to be the largest predictor of student engagement (Skinner, Kindermann & Furrer 2009).
Kaplan and Madjar (2017) believe that SDT strengthens and supports teachers’ understanding of their students’ psychological needs and hence contribute to high-quality teaching. They argue that Hattie’s (2003) description of effective teachers (being able to create optimal classroom environments for learning by working with their students’ affective dispositions, building up students’ involvement, providing feedback, respecting personal choice, caring and being receptive to students’ needs) is consistent with need-supportive behaviours within an SDT perspective (Kaplan & Madjar 2017). Furthermore, Kaplan and Madjar (2017) cite the result from Roth et al. (2007) that students’ autonomous motivation for learning was associated with teachers’ autonomous motivation for teaching and was mediated by teachers’ autonomy-supportive behaviours. That is, autonomously motivated teachers are more supportive of their student’s autonomy and hence engage in high quality teaching.
Research methods and design
This study focuses on a tutor mentorship programme designed for tutors in two undergraduate mathematics modules: a FIP module with an enrolment of more than 500 students and a second intermediate phase mathematics module comprising approximately 150 students. Both these modules focus on improving foundational numeracy skills while also targeting the development of some pedagogic skills. Each of the classes was broken up into smaller tutorial groups of not more than 50 students which were facilitated by the tutors, to enhance the understanding of mathematics concepts. Fifteen tutors were selected from a cohort of high-achieving undergraduate students who had previously excelled in the same primary mathematics modules and expressed interest in tutoring. These tutors participated in a preparatory workshop designed to equip them with the required skills for their mentoring roles. The 3-day training workshop was facilitated by an external organisation, Numeric, that was involved in student tutor coaching, and comprised of sessions in mathematics content development, classroom management, pedagogy training and leadership skills. During the training, Numeric trainers modelled a range of learner engagement activities that participants could incorporate into their tutorial sessions. These included energisers (such as clapping routines) and classroom management techniques (such as the robot card technique). The trainers selected strategies they had found most effective for creating a learner-focused, high-energy environment that emphasises positive reinforcement, support and sustained motivation. Numeric’s selected child-centred engagement strategies – originally adapted from Teach Like a Champion (Lemov 2015) and certain YouTube demonstrations – have been refined through iterative practice over time.
Rather than merely describing the techniques, the trainers demonstrated them in practice, allowing the tutors to experience first-hand how such activities can enhance learner engagement and motivation. This teaching-by-doing approach exemplified experiential modelling, through which the trainers illustrated effective classroom management and fun pedagogical strategies in real time. These modelling approaches aligns with Loughran’s (2013, 2014) view that teacher educators model pedagogical strategies in action, allowing student teachers to learn through observation and experience. Thereafter, the tutors offered a weekly 90-min tutorial sessions to the FIP students in small groups as a means of helping the FIP students to engage with the content. The tutors were provided with regular support by lecturers who attended the sessions and worked together with them.
This study applied qualitative research design to explore the tutor perceptions about the learner engagement strategies that they experienced. The qualitative research approach was used as an appropriate approach for this study because it allowed the in-depth exploration of tutors’ perceptions which is a subjective phenomenon (Moser & Korstjens 2017). This study used a case study design (Yin 2018) because the group of selected student tutors who participated in the tutor training programme can be considered as a case.
The data for this study was generated from a questionnaire, one focus group interview with all the 15 tutors, and WhatsApp conversations. The questionnaire was distributed towards the end of the semester. The interviews took place a few weeks later, after they had time to implement what they had learnt in the training allowing us to probe certain issues that emerged from a reading of the questionnaire response. The WhatsApp conversations took place thereafter, and included follow-up questions to tutors to gain more insight into their initial responses. The interview responses were audio recorded and then transcribed with the consent of participants. The items in the questionnaire and interview probed the students about their learning experiences in the programme and about the teaching strategies that they were introduced to during the programme. Additionally, a baseline numeracy skills test was given pre- and post the training.
The thematic analysis was concerned with the identification of patterns as researchers generated themes (Lochmiller 2021). We used a myriad of steps in the thematic analysis process. Each author studied the transcribed data to become familiar with the data and used initial open coding (identifying and labelling concepts and themes). In a series of meetings, the themes were jointly refined, interpreted and then defined (Mohajan & Mohajan 2022). Shorthand labels were used to identify participant excerpts of data such as W for WhatsApp conversations, T for questionnaire responses, and P for focus group interviews. Letters F and M represent the gender, and the numbers 1 to 15 represent the participant tutor number. For example FW1 represents a quote from a WhatsApp conversation with participant 1 who is female.
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of KwaZulu-Natal Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee (No. HSSREC/00001922/2020) on 21 September 2021. We conformed to the ethical requirements of the university’s ethical committee and ensured that participants were guaranteed confidentiality. The participants were free to free to withdraw at any time without any drawbacks.
Results
Here, we first report on the results for the pre- and post-tests, followed by the participants’ views about the various strategies. The final section presents the participants’ perspectives about the ways in which the trainers modelled the use of these strategies to them.
Results and discussion for the pre- and post-test
The participants were given a baseline test prior at the start of the training, and the same test was given at the end of the training (see Appendix 1 Sample test). The results are shown in Table 1.
| TABLE 1: Results for the pre- and post-test. |
Because we had a small sample of data, a simple paired t test is a suitable and valid test to analyse the results (De Winter 2013). Using GraphPad, a paired t test was carried out on the data.
The t-value is considered to be statistically significant, and with a p-value well below 0.05, the results in Table 2 indicate a statistically significant improvement from the pre-test to the post-test. The findings provide strong evidence that the tutor training programme substantially enhanced tutors’ computational fluency. The statistically significant gains from pre- to post-test, coupled with a very large effect size, indicate that the intervention was not only impactful, but also educationally meaningful. These improvements suggest that structured opportunities to practise foundational numeracy skills, combined with engagement-oriented strategies, can rapidly strengthen mathematical confidence and proficiency.
Tutors’ perspectives about the engagement strategies
The tutors’ perceptions of their student engagement strategies reflected a blend of positive perceptions and ways in which it contributed to their own development. These are now discussed in detail.
Ice cream sticks strategy
The ice cream sticks strategy was used to help participants recognise others and to ensure that everybody kept focus during class. For this activity, participants wrote their names on wooden ice cream sticks that were placed in an empty bottle in the front of the class. When a question was posed, a stick was drawn randomly from the bottle and the selected participant would be asked to respond. This strategy kept most people on track because they could not predict which question they would be asked. Furthermore, the strategy helped them become familiar with everybody’s name. The tutors appreciated being introduced to this strategy. Some of the comments that were made includes:
‘They ensure that everyone participate in the classroom by randomly picking an ice cream stick with all our names. The method of making all learners participate also helps learners that have social anxiety like me’. (FT2)
‘The teachers were able to manage the classroom by grabbing our attention by calling our names from the ice cream sticks when we were misbehaving [distracted]’. (MT6)
The comment from FT2 emphasises that the wooden ice cream sticks strategy ensured sustained participation. The tutors kept alert because they might be asked to respond at any time. Effective classroom management goes beyond maintaining order but involves actively keeping students on track, and the comment from MT6 shows that with this strategy, the distractions were minimised. The ice cream strategy also emphasised the importance of building relationship support by familiarising the participants with the names of others. These activities also helped allay the anxiety experienced by the participants (FT2), helping them to engage meaningfully within a space that they found safe.
Robot card strategy
The ‘robot’ cards classroom management technique helped to keep track of student progress so that the trainer could intervene if a student lagged behind. The ‘robot’ cards (as in traffic robots which direct you on how to proceed) are three A5 cards which are green, yellow and red. The cards are folded into two equal triangles and then placed one on top of one the other. A red card placed on top of the other two cards meant that the facilitator should ‘Stop’ and pay attention to the student(s) who made the signal. A yellow card placed on the top signalled that the student had completed the task, while a green card on top meant the student was on track and understood what was taught. Some of the comments that were made include:
‘The robot card strategy also helped a lot’. (FP7)
‘What I also learnt and loved is the use of robot cards, that when Red card is in front it means “Stop,” Yellow meant you are done with the activity given and Green was for showing you were understanding what was taught’. (FP3)
These comments show that the tutors found the strategy useful and enjoyable, and beneficial to their learning and teaching. They noted that the use of the robot card promoted immediate feedback to the trainer about their progress by providing a snapshot of where the class was as a whole while also helping identifying those who needed assistance promoting their own autonomy of learning.
Clapping strategies
The clapping routine was a technique to re-energise the group when the energy levels were slowing down. Here, there were different routines, such as the McDonald (McD) clap where they clapped three times to the left and to the right and then moved to the rhythm of the McD jingle while saying the Jingle: ‘ba ba ba ba ba’. They would then form a heart with their hands above their heart and say ‘I’m loving it’. Another clap mentioned was the Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) one which involved clapping three times after which the group would call out ‘STOP’, pointing to the person with the correct answer. They then clapped three times again and then said ‘STOP IT’, clapped three times and pointed to the person and said ‘STOP IT I LIKE IT!’
Some participants stated:
‘The clapping strategies were interesting to learn and do, we love them. It was an encouraging factor. McD and KFC claps’. (MW1)
‘Clapping strategy captures our attention and I wanted to answer questions so that they can clap my favourite clap McD. I think we must use the clapping strategy so that the student can pay attention and participate’. (FW2)
The tutors pointed out that the clapping strategies energised the participants and made learning interesting and enjoyable. The participant MW1 believed that the clapping strategies encouraged them to participate. As participant FW2 highlighted, the routines also motivated them to engage fully and respond so that they could get their favourite claps (FW2) which built up their confidence. If the participant’s response was correct, the class responded by clapping, so participants received immediate feedback within a supportive environment. This also shows how the emotional connections were fostered across the classroom.
Ice breakers
The icebreaker routines used by the Numeric trainers were also popular with the participants. As soon as the tutors entered the venue, they were asked to form a circle, and each person introduced themselves with an adjective that started with the first letter of their names. They then had turns to say say names of every participant in the circle, for example, the fourth person would start off by reciting the names of the three participants before them and end off by introducing themselves. The tutors commented that it made them comfortable, and was a useful technique to help them remember everybody’s name:
‘[W]e did this game where we were in a circle and introduced ourselves with an adjective that starts with the first letter of our names, eg Beautiful Busani … And thereafter we call the name of everyone present in the circle. This make me feel at ease and know other participants’. (MW1)
This strategy helped them to feel valued while also creating a joint team spirit, strengthening the relationships that were being built across participants and facilitators. The ice breaker required mental effort and focus because the participants had to remember each other’s name, for example the last person would need to know the descriptive name of at least 18 people including the trainers. Here too, the strategy promotes a caring ethic while promoting participation and creating a shared identity.
Fluency development strategies that promoted practice in a fun way
The student tutors were also introduced to strategies for developing fluency, that is, helping the participants to practice without making it seem tedious. To play the cue (flash) cards with multiplication for example, you need two participants and 50 flash cards, each with a multiplication question on one side and the answer on the other side. The first participant would hold up each of the 50 flash cards and call out the numbers to be multiplied for example 8 times 9. Then, the second participant would call out the answer, which is recorded as right or wrong by the first person. There was a time limit, after which a tally would be given on the number correct, and thereafter they would swop roles with the second participant now calling out the question and then recording whether it was correct or not. The one with more correct questions would be declared the winner for every pair participating. But, the one with highest number of correct answers from the whole class would be the overall winner. The class would applaud her or him with a special type of a clap. With this strategy, students effectively work through 50 exercises in a fun way while keeping mentally alert and engaged. The physical clapping afterwards motivated the student tutors to remain cognitively engaged for longer.
A similar technique that enhanced their mental math skills was the focused drill-work, which was evaluated at different levels. This involved completing 50 multiplication or 50 division questions. Each participant would start at level 5 where they were given 5 min, and if they got them all correct, they were promoted to level 4 for the next drill with a time limit of 4 min, and if you got every question correct there, you would move to the next drill with a limit of 3 min and you would be now in level 3. Some comments related to these activities appear below:
‘Using drill improved my multiplication and division. Teaching mathematics using games made maths fun and interesting. They were giving us support and not judging us’. (FP2)
‘They improved the mental mathematics using the drills. They allowed us to participate, there were no wrong/right answers. They had patience’. (FP3)
‘I learnt a lot on my content knowledge because of the strategies they used. They made mathematics to be fun for us. They were allowing us to play games using multiplication and division cards’. (MP1)
‘They took everyone with baby steps. Their strategies made us concentrate on every second of the training. All in all their teaching strategies are on point. They made us participate in a fun way, where we understood that maths is fun, its not about numbers only … During the training, what helped me improve was that they gave us more homework, practicing at home over and over helped a lot’. (FP7)
‘Before the start of the lesson we were given some questions I don’t remember what they call it but it had 50 questions and were given time to finish it, each day if we were doing division we will be given those questions to answer and then we swop with each other to mark it in a class after and those who get total they were given different clap from others. So there were 3 levels for these questions, and the time was also different. For level 1, the time was short compared to other levels. Starting with easier questions and gradually moving to harder ones, this boosted my confidence because it motivated me to keep participating and knowing that it will not always find easy questions to answer’. (MW1)
‘After writing the 50 questions of multiplication or division our partner were marking then the top three were getting their favourite clap song to congratulate them since we learnt many claps. If you got total you were going to get two claps of your favourite and number 2 and 3 get one type of a clap. Yes, it encourage you to do more and participate. You end up not shy but wanting to say your answer so they can do your favourite clap’. (FW2)
As indicated by the participants, these techniques were effective in building up fluency by extensive practice because it was done in a fun way. The approach used by trainers made mathematics fun (MP1; FP7), enjoyable and interesting. These activities created a supportive and non-judgmental environment. The participants with the highest scores were rewarded by their favourite claps which was a recognition of their good work. The use of drills enabled the participants to improve their fluency in multiplication and division facts. As indicated by MW1 and MW3, the time to complete the 50 questions determined your level at that moment. Hence, the participants improved their fluency by being motivated to move to the more challenging levels, thus promoting their sense of autonomy in their learning. An important aspect here is that the learners’ skills improved in response to tasks that became progressively more challenging. Participant 7 expressed this strategy of scaffolding the tasks by making them progressively more difficult as them taking ‘baby-steps’ and introducing more difficult concepts gradually. By practising daily at home, starting with simple exercises and then moving to more difficult ones, they were able to improve their fluency.
Perceptions of the trainers’ modelling approach
Overall, many participants mentioned that they learnt new skills from the trainers through their modelling of the use of the strategies. Rather than simply describing the energiser strategies, the trainers demonstrated them in practice using the mathematical tasks that the tutors were currently working on. The participants expressed that they felt confident they would be able to put this into practice in their tutorial sessions as well as in their classroom when they became teachers:
‘The programme helped me in developing good classroom management skills which I will be able to apply when I am a tutor and as a teacher’. (MP1)
‘For their information, I realised that it was not only to be applied in tutoring sessions only, but I will pass the knowledge to learners outside the institution to primary school learners’. (FP3)
They also expressed their amazement at the facilitation skills displayed by the Numeric trainers and how effortlessly they seemed to keep the participants engaged and on track:
‘The overall mood of the classroom was amazing. The numeric team brought about an environment where learning was fun and exciting and really felt like an adventure. I looked forward to going to class the next day. They presented this skill of being serious about learning, but in a manner that exposed its true essence; learning is exciting … I genuinely think that that is an ideal classroom … It felt natural to not be distracted, there was not one moment where I felt to entertain myself with my phone or chat with others. It felt natural but it was the Numeric team that fostered this. They told us what was expected of us, and led us through it to a point where it felt like a normality to be in the class and stay focused for all those hours without getting bored or losing focus’. (FT8)
In the above excerpt, Tutor FT8 has recognised the expertise of the Numeric tutors in keeping them purposefully occupied while learning, with the carefully sequenced and planned activities which kept them engaged naturally. By describing it as an ideal classroom, the student highlights the level of skill and expertise needed to deliver the content effectively, while optimising learner engagement and motivation. The tutors’ reflections suggest that the modelling approach used by the trainers was a particularly effective method of teaching. Participant FT8’s reflections suggest that they were able to internalise how such strategies can sustain learner attention and create an enjoyable, interactive learning environment.
Discussion
The student tutors’ reflections revealed many different ways in which they experienced aspects of autonomy support, competence support and relatedness support within the programme which helped them sustain their motivation and engagement. These themes are explored in greater detail below.
The tutors’ knowledge improved during the course of the programme
The results from the pre- and post-test showed marked improvement in the scores of all except one participant. The tutors as noted by MP1 and FP3 also reported improvements in their pedagogical content knowledge. Tutors attributed the improvement in their knowledge to the activities such as the flash cards, focused drill work and the supportive environment within which they were working (FP2; FP3; MP1). The participants recognised the benefits of the mathematical drills in strengthening their mental computation, multiplication and division as well as their communication skills (FP2; FP3). The approach used by the trainers made mathematics fun (MP1), enjoyable and interesting.
The tutors experienced the learning environment as safe and supportive, thus meeting the need for relatedness support
As noted by Roorda et al. (2011), relatedness support involves a sense of caring and being interested in the student while trying to create a non-competitive environment where teachers try to provide motivational and emotional support (Chiu 2021). The tutors reflected that they experienced these aspects of support as they participated in the learner engagement strategies. Many of the comments referred to the peer support, a sense of community and a culture of tolerance (MP1; MW1). The ice breaking activity of adding a descriptor to your name worked well for tutors as they all tried to recall everybody’s names and descriptors, resulting in a joint community effort (MW1). The ice cream sticks strategy helped sustain their participation. The clapping strategy made tutors feel as if everybody was on the same side as they extended mutual support to one another. They also lauded the achievements of others; hence, there was a shared responsibility in the learning process, so tutors felt safe, allowing them to also take autonomy in this competence supportive environment (Erdoğdu & Çakıroğlu 2021; Kurdi & Meena 2023; Ryan & Deci 2017). Ryan and Deci (2017) emphasised that intrinsic motivation is enhanced when the relatedness need is met, as seen in this instance where caring, support and community spirit were evident.
The activities provided competence and autonomy support
Competence refers to the need to feel effective in achieving desired outcomes, such as mathematics knowledge and skills as well as pedagogical skills. Teachers who offer competence support try to provide structure, guidance and immediate feedback which can enhance motivation if it also offers autonomy support (Roorda et al. 2011; Ryan & Deci 2017).
The robot card strategy showed how strongly the trainers valued having everyone stay on track in their learning; the tutors exercised autonomy; in that they communicated their progress to the trainer who responded immediately to this information (FP3). Ryan and Deci (2017) argue that when feedback addresses an informational aspect by conveying competence information, as it did in this setting, it affirms individuals’ sense of competence, while they participate autonomously. The tutors’ positive endorsements when describing the robot card strategy are illustrative of this affirmation.
The activities also included immediate feedback, as seen by the flash cards where the partner could immediately evaluate and communicate if the answer was correct or not. The clapping strategies motivated tutors to participate and get the correct answers so that they could enjoy the special clap directed to them (FW2). Reviewing the current literature on feedback and motivation, Fong and Schallert (2023) argue that feedback works not only cognitively (helping learners see their performance level), but also emotionally and motivationally. It highlights that positive or supportive feedback triggers motivational and emotional processes that encourage re-engagement, perseverance and willingness to improve, thus providing a link between feedback and intrinsic motivation.
Some of the fluency activities were structured with gradually increasing levels of difficulty as described in the drill work for the mental maths skills. Tutors felt encouraged by being applauded with specific claps as they progressed through the more challenging tasks (MW1). This speaks to organising effective challenges around students’ competence needs in mathematics (Connell & Wellborn 1991). By setting up tasks with progressive difficulty, this supports learning while maintaining engagement thus providing autonomy and competence support.
The trainers effectively modelled techniques
The tutors’ reflections suggest that the modelling technique used by the trainers was an effective method of teaching. Rather than simply hearing about the engagement strategies, the tutors experienced how these strategies work first-hand while working on the tasks. Tutors were able to internalise how such strategies can sustain learner attention and create an enjoyable, interactive learning environment. They expressed confidence that they could use these strategies as tutors and future teachers. The tutors’ comments in praise of the trainers (MP1; FP3; FT8) affirm that learning through modelling improved their understanding of how to implement engagement strategies effectively, as well as how to motivate and support mathematics learning. This is consistent with an SDT perspective which emphasises the need for structure and guidance on how students could set up autonomy and competence supportive environments themselves as teachers (Roorda et al. 2011), that is, it supported the participants’ needs for competence in pedagogical skills. By providing clear guidelines, and setting out clear expectations, the trainers demonstrated the structure that was necessary for the success of the activities, hence building up their sense of competence in respect to pedagogical skills (Ryan & Deci 2017). It is important to note that autonomously motivated teachers are more supportive of their student’s autonomy (Kaplan & Madjar 2017). So the tutors’ endorsement of receiving competence support shows that their autonomous motivation was nurtured, and this will allow them to foster their students autonomous motivation in learning in turn.
Conclusion
In this study, we investigated different types of engagement strategies which when combined was experienced by tutors as effective in increasing engagement, confidence, self-esteem, as well as positive feelings towards mathematics and evidently increased achievement. These strategies provided positive feedback through whole class energisers in the form of fun methods of rhythmic clapping which developed a sense of community and support. The drills and exercises focusing on improving basic foundational numeric skills and mental maths progressively increased in difficulty, while the assessments provided immediate feedback. The ice cream stick engagement strategy helped sustain engagement in a non-judgemental manner and created a safe environment where they could participate without anxiety. The ice breakers helped foster a sense of community. The modelling approach of the trainers worked as a structure-supporting technique, helping the tutors feel confident that they could implement it similarly by applying the pedagogic skills that made it successful.
The study has provided insights into how these specific strategies work to create a supportive environment consistent with SDT theory that was able to foster cognitive, behavioural and emotional engagement and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci 2017). Hence, the study contributes to knowledge of how carefully designed strategies in teacher education can foster cognitive, affective and professional benefits in the teacher education setting.
In taking this study further, the next step is to investigate the extent to which these student tutors can implement such strategies in their lessons and to identify the kind of support they need to put them into practice. This will set the foundation for scaling up these experiences so that larger groups of students can experience these engagement strategies first-hand as learners. This could additionally be effected through integrating these strategies into teacher education programmes to helping PSTs to not only become more engaged and develop their autonomous motivation, but also to display autonomy supportive behaviours to their learners in their future classrooms. Exposure to innovative practices is a necessary condition for meaningful change in student teachers’ instructional approaches, and it is essential that all students, not only tutors, are given such opportunities.
Acknowledgements
Competing interest
The authors reported that they received funding from the National Research Fund (NRF) which may be affected by the research reported in the enclosed publication. The authors have disclosed those interests fully and have implemented an approved plan for managing any potential conflicts arising from their involvement. The terms of these funding arrangements have been reviewed and approved by the affiliated University in accordance with its policy on objectivity in research.
CRediT authorship contribution
Cathrine Kazunga: Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Sarah Bansilal: Conceptualisation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Suryakumari Rajah: Conceptualisation, Data curation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – review & editing. Lytion Chiromo: Writing – original draft. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussion of results, approved the final version for submission and publication and take responsibility for the integrity of its findings.
Funding information
Funding was received from the NRF (grant number: CPRR230515106015).
Data availability
The authors declare that all data that support this research article and findings are available in the article and its references.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings, and content.
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Appendix 1
Baseline assessment: Arithmetic [Re-formatted]
Question One
1.1 The place value of 4 in 84 062 is ___________________ Choose one of the following: Units, Tens, Hundreds, Thousands or Ten Thousands
1.2 Round off 4864 to the closest hundred
1.3 6 + 11 = 3 + □
1.4 374 + 3885 =
1.5 8436 - 4387 =
1.6 43 × 3 =
1.7 283 × 75 =
1.8 Faidelah completed her homework in 28 minutes, Yaseen took 14 minutes longer, How long did it take Yaseen to complete his homework?
1.9 Evile has 6 boxes of smarties. If there are 18 smarties in each box, how many smarties does he have in total?
Question Two
2.1 Consider the number 28 518. Circle the correct answer for each.
- Is 28 518 divisible by 2? Yes/No
- Is 28 518 divisible by 3? Yes/No
- Is 28 518 divisible by 4? Yes/No
- Is 28 518 divisible by 5? Yes/No
- Is 28 518 divisible by 6? Yes/No
- Is 28 518 divisible by 9? Yes/No
2.2 31÷ 4 =
2.3 645 ÷ 5 =
2.4 7068 ÷ 12 =
2.5 List all the factors of 36
2.6 List all the factors of 180
2.7 Define a prime number
2.8 Define a composite number
2.9 Which of the following numbers is prime?
2.10 Which of the following numbers is composite?
2.11 What is the prime factorisation of 48?
2.12 What is the highest common factor (HCF) of 6 and 18? Use Listing method
2.13 What is the highest common factor (HCF) of 36 and 60. Use Prime Factorisation
2.14 What is the Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of 4 and 10? Use Listing method
2.15 What is the Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of 18 and 24? Use Prime Factorisation
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