Quality education is critical in a country as it demonstrates progress in empowering citizens and fostering social and economic development. Therefore, it is important for nations to provide quality education that enables citizens to be productive and contribute to economic growth. Numerous tests are administered globally to assess educational standards, such as the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) (Howie et al. 2017; Reddy et al. 2020, 2021). South Africa participates in these assessments, and the scores indicate that it is underperforming compared to other countries. The country also has its own national assessments known as the Annual National Assessment (ANA), which evaluates learner performance and monitors the quality of education in schools (Mensah, Pillay & Mohammad 2023). The academic challenges faced by the country can be traced back to past injustices that segregated the education system by race (Soudien 2024). The OECD (2023) emphasises that when people in a country are educated, they are more likely to secure good jobs, leading to increased salaries and improved living standards. The higher the level of education within a country, the fewer social ills are experienced (OECD 2023). It is therefore crucial that learners develop essential 21st-century skills, known as the 4Cs: critical thinking, creativity, communication and collaboration, to thrive in an ever-changing world. Education School (2023) asserts that children who receive proper instruction in basic reading, writing and mathematics are more likely to excel in school and develop critical and analytical thinking skills that will aid them both academically and beyond. In South Africa, to ensure that primary school learners acquire these skills, chess was introduced into the curriculum in three provinces: KwaZulu-Natal, Western Cape and Gauteng.

Chess has been identified as one of the best interventions used in various countries to ensure that learners get a quality education, which not only helps them do well in school but also ensures their success even beyond school years as they join the workforce. It is therefore essential that the learners be given support in their learning journeys. Literature shows that chess in schools has been successful in enhancing learners’ cognitive and academic abilities in several countries, including Italy, Indonesia, Turkey, Germany and Spain (Sala & Gomez 2016). However, the incorporation of chess in the curriculum in South Africa has not shown the good results as seen elsewhere (Kakoma & Giannakopoulos 2016). The lack of success of the chess programmes in South Africa can be attributed to many factors, including the lack of proper training, motivation and interest of the teachers and the language of instruction used (Christian & Sayed 2023). This study aims to explain the implementation of a good chess programme, which will ensure that the learners are not compromised in the quality of education, as according to the teachers already involved in the Tsogo Sun Moves for Life programme in the King Cetshwayo district. The study is guided by two main research questions:

All learners have the potential to do well if they are given the necessary assistance and support that they need. Pur, Mbahi, and Audu (2019) states that the underperformance of learners in school is a result of many causes, such as personal factors, environmental variables or emotional factors. Pur et al. further argues that these learners can perform reasonably or even well with the necessary support from schools. OECD (2013) adds that there are numerous ways that learners can be supported in the learning process; one example is through the introduction of pedagogical models and programmes, such as inquiry-based learning, game-based learning, peer tutoring, flipped classrooms and structured intervention programmes such as reading clubs or numeracy enrichment sessions. Good programmes are needed to uplift the education level in the country, which has been identified as a poor performer because of its performance when compared with other countries in tests such as PIRLS, SACMEQ and TIMSS (Howie et al. 2017; Reddy et al. 2020, 2021).

Poor literacy and numeracy scores have been a problem for quite some time in South Africa. Chess has been identified as the solution not only to this problem but also to developing intelligence and many other benefits that come with chess education, which include problem-solving and reasoning heuristics (Sala & Gobet 2016). Chess was introduced in schools to be incorporated into the curriculum through programmes. Chess programmes have been implemented in different countries for different purposes, such as Italy, Turkey, Spain, Germany and Indonesia (Sala & Gomez 2016). Gevorgyan, Manukyan and Sargsyan (2023) describe playing chess as a way of stimulating thinking.

There have been many programmes introduced by the Department of Basic Education (DBE) and the King Cetshwayo Education District to improve teaching and learning in King Cetshwayo; among those programmes is a chess programme known as the Tsogo Sun Moves for Life. The focus of this programme is on the learners in the Foundation Phase, where they are taught life skills, numeracy and literacy through chess. Among the three provinces where the chess programme is currently piloted, this article focuses on 14 of the 20 schools in KwaZulu-Natal.

Educational programmes made to enhance teaching and learning are crucial in ensuring that learners get the necessary extra support they need to succeed. However, if the programmes are not well planned and implemented, they do not yield the expected results, as was the case in the King Cetshwayo district in a study conducted in 2018 by Dlamini, where the teachers revealed challenges of the lack of chess expertise, yet they had to teach chess both in theory and practice. Another challenge they raised is that of increased workload, as they had additional workbooks for chess that they had to monitor and mark. The programme provided the learners with workbooks, which helped them with more activities. The teachers found the workbooks not very appealing to the learners because of the advanced content and the fact that they were not colourful, as Foundation Phase learners are at the age of being attracted to bright and colourful objects, as is the case in the DBE workbooks. Having said this, it is then important to consider the context where the programme is implemented so that it addresses exactly the needs of the people it is intended for. The programme must have clear aims that must not only be known to the programme developers but also to the implementers, so that they drive the programme towards what it is aimed for.

The Tsogo Sun Moves for Life programme was launched in 2010 by the then president of the country, Mr Jacob Zuma, in partnership with the Minister of Education, Mrs Angie Motshekga and the Deputy Minister of Sports and Recreation, Mr Gert Oosthuizen, who attended the launch with The International Chess Federation (FIDE) and Chess South Africa (CHESSA) (Kobese 2010). The programme was commended by the president for being uniquely South African, which raises questions, as it came across many challenges in its implementation, according to the teachers implementing it in classrooms. The programme was supported by the Department of Basic Education Minister, Mrs Angie Motshekga, who assured the chess community of the department’s unwavering support for the programme and the willingness to take care of the training of the teachers, which she said would take place the following year, that is, 2011. However, literature shows that teachers involved in the Moves for Life programme in South Africa complained about the challenge of lacking chess expertise (Dlamini 2018; Kakoma & Giannakopoulos 2016). It was not for the first time that the Moves for Life programme was implemented, as it is also in countries such as Ireland and Turkey, specifically where it was incredibly successful (Kobese 2010).

This study was informed by James MacGregor Burns’ 1978 Transformational Leadership Theory, which was later developed by Bernard M. Bass in 1985. This theory is mainly used by leaders in creating a conducive environment for their employees and employees working freely and coming up with innovative and creative ideas, but it can equally be used in programmes such as those implemented in schools with the aim of enhancing teaching and learning. Burns (1978) defines the Transformational Leadership Theory as a process whereby advancing to higher levels of morale and motivation is a result of the leaders working hand in hand with the followers. Bass and Bernard (1985) further outlined the importance of fairness and integrity, setting clear goals, having high expectations, encouraging others, providing support and recognition, stirring the emotions of people, encouraging them to look beyond their self-interests and reaching for the improbable. In this study, the focus is mainly on the dimensions of providing support, recognition and setting clear goals, as these leadership practices are viewed as central to influencing teachers’ motivation and the successful adoption of the chess programme in schools. This theory is one of the most important ideas in business leadership (Mind Tools Team 2019). While the programmes in schools are not established with business ideas in mind, they require immense leadership to succeed. If the programmes are to be sustained and make a difference in schools, they need to have clear goals, which should be communicated to all the stakeholders, such as the Department of Education offices and the school community at large. This theory is particularly suitable for the integration of chess in Foundation Phase classrooms because such programmes require leadership that motivates teachers, fosters innovation and sustains commitment to the programme’s aims. In rural school settings, the key elements of transformational leadership, such as inspiring a shared vision, encouraging creativity and providing individualised support, translate into practical ways of helping teachers use chess meaningfully in their classrooms despite the challenges they face. The leaders need to be supportive towards those implementing the programmes and give recognition where it is due for motivational purposes. If this is implemented well, the teachers will ensure they go beyond what is expected of them and initiate productive ideas to develop the programme.

Understanding the philosophical foundations of this study, the researcher employed a qualitative approach, which is embedded in the interpretivist paradigm. This approach emphasises understanding subjective meanings and experiences within their social context (Pervin & Mokhtar 2022). The research focused on the personal experiences of the participants, allowing for an in-depth exploration of their perceptions. As Ayton (2023) notes, qualitative research seeks to uncover the richness of human experiences, making it particularly suited for studies aiming to understand individuals’ perspectives.

The findings of this study are presented according to the themes generated from the data gathered from the participants. The following themes were generated: Getting it right from the start: good preparation, chess educational values, support and motivation, and implementation challenges.

The study aimed to explore the perception of teachers on the integration of chess in rural South African schools with the theoretical lens of the Transformational Leadership Theory. The findings reveal a nuanced view of how chess programmes can either succeed or fail, depending on the quality of preparation, perceived educational value, available support and motivation, and implementation challenges experienced. Transformational leadership offers a powerful framework for understanding and responding to these themes because of its emphasis on inspiring a shared vision, individualised support, intellectual stimulation and modelling high expectations (Bass & Riggio 2006).

The participants stated the importance of intentional preparation prior to the launch of a chess programme. This finding is aligned with this study’s theoretical framework, transformational leadership, which emphasises visionary planning and building commitment (Leithwood & Jantzi 2005). It is important to select teachers with an interest in chess and provide them with adequate training, which indicates the importance of individual consideration, which is a key pillar of transformational leadership. When leaders require teachers who are not interested in teaching chess or not trained, as Participant J’s experience indicates, it demotivates them and also compromises the success of the programme. Effective transformational leaders engage teachers early in the planning stages, identify their strengths, and offer support based on their skill levels and interests (Northouse 2018). The lack of satisfaction indicated by participants about limited training shows a gap in leadership practices that fail to empower and build teacher capacity adequately. Observations of classroom sessions supported this finding, showing that teachers with limited preparation often struggled to engage learners effectively, while those with prior interest and experience demonstrated greater confidence and smoother implementation. Literature shows that successful educational innovations require materials, ongoing professional development and teacher buy-in (Desimone & Garet 2015).

All the participants acknowledged the important educational benefits of chess, including improvements in cognitive skills, learner focus and emotional resilience. These findings resonate with literature suggesting that chess enhances executive functions, problem-solving skills and academic achievement, particularly in math and reading (Kazemi, Yektayar & Abad 2012; Sala & Gobet 2016). The motivational impact of chess on learners with academic difficulties reflects the intellectual stimulation and inspirational motivation central to transformational leadership (Bass & Riggio 2006). A leader who recognises such potential could use chess not only as a teaching tool but also as a vehicle for inclusion and learner empowerment. The social and emotional benefits described by teachers include respect, discipline and perseverance, to name a few. Support literature states that chess contributes to holistic learner development (Scholz, Hung & Jerschke 2008). These findings align with the transformative goal of education to shape not just academic but also ethical and emotionally intelligent pupils (Burns 1978). Classroom observations confirmed these educational benefits, with learners actively participating, demonstrating improved concentration and showing positive social interactions, supporting the teachers’ perceptions.

Teachers appreciated the support they got, such as enough chess sets and responsive coordinators. However, they also stated the need for more training, recognition and monetary incentives. This indicates that while structural support was there, motivational and emotional support, as found in transformational leaders, was not consistently applied. According to the transformational leadership theory, recognising staff contributions and encouraging professional growth are key to sustaining motivation (Leithwood & Jantzi 2005). The participants appreciated the certificates of appreciation, viewing them as a tool for career advancement. However, the participants also indicated interest in monetary incentives, and incentives without money were considered inadequate. This means that the chess leaders need to understand what drives different individuals. Literature emphasises the importance of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sustaining teacher engagement in educational reforms (Ryan & Deci 2000). While the certificates inspired and satisfied some of the participants, others wanted tangible rewards for their sustained commitment, especially becausethis initiative demands extra work beyond what is required from them by the Department of Education. Observations further highlighted that teachers who received adequate support and motivation were more confident in implementing chess activities, while those who lacked sufficient support sometimes struggled to maintain learner engagement.

While recognising the value of chess, participants stated that they were still not happy about administrative overload, advanced materials and language barriers. These challenges align with findings from other studies that indicate that the sustainability of programmes based in schools is often characterised by poor alignment with existing workloads and curricula of teachers (Fullan 2007). The teachers’ frustration with English materials in isiZulu-medium classes indicates that the programme leaders failed to check the context first. Transformational leaders are expected to adapt strategies to local needs and engage in culturally relevant planning (Shields 2010). Ignoring language considerations not only increases teacher workload but also diminishes the effectiveness of the programme for learners. Also, the complexity of chess workbooks, which they said even for them (teachers), shows a lack of intellectual scaffolding necessary for programme success. Observations confirmed these challenges, showing that teachers often struggled to manage chess activities alongside other responsibilities, and learners were sometimes confused as resources were not aligned with their home language or ability level. Leaders must ensure that materials are developmentally appropriate and aligned to the local educational context, a key aspect of transformational leadership’s intellectual stimulation domain.

The findings suggest that while the participants view the chess programme as having strong educational potential, its success hinges on transformational leadership, responsive to teachers’ needs, empowering in its vision and committed to equitable support structures. For chess to thrive in rural schools, leaders must engage teachers as co-creators, invest in thorough training, provide differentiated support and recognise the contextual realities that influence teaching and learning.

Ensuring quality education is important, which is why intervention programmes to enhance teaching and learning are introduced in schools. However, running programmes in schools is not without challenges, which is why it is important to foresee them and try to prevent them beforehand. It becomes more of a problem, particularly if brought to people who were not involved during its beginning, unless there are good strategies for making them buy into the idea. Getting views during the implementation through evaluations is critical and ensures success. Chess is a complex game that requires teachers to understand it first before they can be able to teach it well. This study explored the perceptions of Foundation Phase teachers in rural South African schools regarding the use of chess as an educational tool, guided by transformational leadership theory. The findings revealed that while teachers recognise the cognitive, academic and social benefits of chess, its successful implementation depends on elements such as adequate preparation, ongoing support, appropriate resources and leadership that values and motivates teachers.