In the analysis phase, data were collected through a literature review to examine the importance of EC science learning, the relevance of ecological themes–based content and the potential of AR media. This review supported learning innovation, validated performance gaps, determined appropriate learning objectives and identified the resources needed for media development. To complement the literature results, a needs analysis was conducted by distributing Google Forms to EC educators in Padang City. This step aimed to confirm the characteristics of the target audience and identify suitable AR media ecology topics needed by teachers. This study was conducted in the city of Padang, with 48 teachers in the initial survey.

Learning objectives were formulated in line with the Indonesian EC Education Curriculum and disaster education guidelines. This phase was a conceptual design that underlined the subsequent development process. At this phase, the research team focused on integrating natural disaster scenarios (volcanic eruption and flood), safety procedures and environmental impacts into an interactive AR media, using the Assemblr Studio platform digital content. Instrument design was also carried out at this phase, adapted from Charlesworth (2016), Brewer (2007); Jackman (2012), Yaswinda (2019), as shown in Table 1.

The development process utilises Assemblr Studio to create AR media, facilitating the incorporation of marker-based 3D visualisations. These visualisations enable children to scan markers with mobile devices and access interactive science learning experiences. Augmented reality content is utilised to present key scientific phenomena associated with natural disasters, including volcanic eruptions and floods, in a manner that is developmentally appropriate and visually engaging. Interactive features have been incorporated to facilitate the observation of cause-and-effect relationships by children, the identification of natural elements and engagement in basic scientific reasoning.

Following the completion of the ETBARM prototype, the subsequent phase involved media validation, which entailed the involvement of four experts: two in the field of EC education and two in the domain of educational technology. The ETBARM prototype trial was conducted in two stages. A one-to-one interview was conducted with a kindergarten teacher. This was followed by an FGD involving 10 teachers from five kindergartens. This activity aimed to gather feedback on the AR media being developed for EC science learning, select or design supporting media and develop learning guides for teachers. Following this, the AR media prototype was revised. Furthermore, a small-scale trial was conducted involving three kindergarten teachers and 15 kindergarten children. The objective of the trial was to produce a science learning guidebook on ETBARM. The results of the trial and the revised guidebook are presented hereafter.

The implementation phase began with ToT for 10 kindergarten teachers. This ToT was necessary for the implementation of science learning with ETBARM, as well as to adequately prepare students in the application of this media. Furthermore, a formative trial in the form of a field trial was conducted in five kindergartens involving nine kindergarten teachers who had participated in the ToT and 48 kindergarten students. One teacher who had participated in the ToT did not take part in this field trial because of health reasons. In this field trial, students participated in group learning. There was one group with one teacher. Each session focused on science themes related to volcanic eruptions and floods. The ETBARM was accessed via laptops and smartphones available in the classroom environment. During these sessions, the behavioural responses and engagement levels of the students were meticulously documented. Additionally, qualitative data were obtained through interviews with teachers and children. Concurrently, quantitative data were obtained through pre-test and post-test observations instruments.

In the final phase of the ADDIE framework, the effectiveness of the ETBARM intervention was evaluated. Scientific progress was quantified using pre-tests and post-tests observation instruments and educator reflections. The quantitative data were analysed using a range of descriptive and inferential statistical methods, including the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test, to measure the impact of ETBARM on students’ science abilities. Qualitative data from teacher and child interviews, as well as observation results, were analysed. Additionally, a decision tree model was used to identify predictors of learning outcomes (Online Appendix 1).

Ethical approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of Padang State University (Approval No. 008/KEPK-UNP/5/2025). Participants were asked for their written informed consent, which assured their safety during participation as well as no risk or harm of any sort, in compliance with the ethical requirements of the institution coordinating this study. The study was entirely optional, and participants were free to leave voluntarily.

The analysis phase yielded several key results. The literature review emphasised the importance of EC science education, particularly in relation to ecological themes. It underscored the instructional value of integrating AR to bridge existing performance gaps and improve the delivery of science content in EC settings. This review also emphasised the need for contextually relevant, engaging and developmentally appropriate digital media to support children’s understanding of complex natural phenomena. A needs analysis conducted through an online Google Form survey with 48 teachers of EC education showed that AR media was rarely used in schools, as shown in Table 2. The proportion of female teachers was found to be 97.9%, while the proportion of male teachers was 2.1%. The proportion of teachers who hold qualifications at the Master’s level is 35.4%, at the Bachelor’s level 58.3% and at the Senior High School level 6.3%. The data indicate that 54.2% of respondents have accumulated between 10 years and 54 years of experience, 6.2% have accumulated between 5 years and 10 years, 16.7% have accumulated between 2 years and 5 years, and 22.9% have accumulated less than 2 years.

Based on the results, 72.9% of teachers have never used AR media in EC education. Twenty-one teachers were unaware of AR media previously, while the remaining were aware but unable to create media. The survey results also showed that AR media were widely used in developing EC science skills, including aspects of scientific knowledge, scientific process skills and scientific attitudes.

There was a scarcity of digital learning tools tailored to ecological topics, such as natural disasters. Table 2 presents the choice of respondents and shows that current resources were insufficient to explain abstract scientific events such as volcanic eruptions or floods in a way suitable for young learners. Additionally, there were difficulties in maintaining engagement because of a lack of interactive and visual materials. These results validated the need for the development of ETBARM specifically designed to develop EC science skills, including aspects of scientific knowledge, process skills and attitudes.

As part of the survey, educators were asked to select preferred topics for AR media development. The data generated show strong interest in themes such as volcanic eruptions (25.23%) and floods (21.20%). The analysis of topic preferences showed a striking tendency towards ecological phenomena that were urgent and contextually relevant to the environment. The graphical representation of these preferences emphasises the importance of designing educational media capable of addressing the most pressing local issues, namely floods and volcanic eruptions, which received the highest scores among all the options presented. This shows a strong awareness or interest among children and teachers in topics directly related to natural disasters that frequently occur in the area.

The analysis showed a lack of contextual and digital learning tools that could effectively help children understand ecological phenomena such as natural disasters in an age-appropriate and engaging manner. Furthermore, many teachers reported difficulties in conveying science concepts related to events such as volcanic eruptions and floods because of the limited availability of visual and interactive learning materials.

Figure 1 (a) and (b) present the design phase focused on the evolution of AR media in accordance with the requirements of the curriculum, which is in line with initiatives aimed at improving the effectiveness and calibre of information and communication technology (ICT)-integrated learning resource centres as mandated by the Ministry of Education and Culture of Indonesia.

Student’s conceptual understanding and scientific process learning were significantly enhanced through the use of ETBARM. The development of this media was achieved through the application of Assemblr EDU or Assemblr Studio Web. This includes evaluations and critiques from educators and experts, as well as systematically designed 3D scientific content consistent with established learning objectives.

The ETBARM on the theme of flooding consists of 10 slides, with each one being used for approximately 1–1.5 min, resulting in a total learning time of around 15 min. As demonstrated in slides 1–2, the concept of flooding and its various causes is introduced, while slides 3–6 describe environmental factors such as forest burning, illegal logging, barren land and the habit of littering. Slides 7–8 illustrate high rainfall and flood conditions, while slides 9–10 demonstrate the evacuation process and the significance of maintaining environmental cleanliness. The ETBARM presentation on the subject of volcanic eruptions consists of 14 slides, with each one being used for approximately 2 min, thus resulting in a total learning time of approximately 28 min. The initial slides (1–2) provide an introduction to ETBARM and its utilisation. This is followed by the subsequent slides (3–5), which focus on the presentation of various mountains, including Marapi, Singgalang, and Tandikek. Slides 6–12 illustrate the gradual process of a volcanic eruption, commencing with the conditions that precede the eruption, the anatomy of the volcano and culminating in the ejection of eruptive material. The final two slides (13–14) present material on disaster mitigation and thus serve to conclude the lesson.

Table 3 presents the Draft Design ETBARM, which was assessed by EC and instructional media experts. The ETBARM was evaluated by two instructional media experts using a structured rubric consisting of three main components, namely, content quality and objectives, instructional quality and technical quality. Each indicator was rated on a scale of 1–5.

Furthermore, both experts were granted the opportunity to submit notes regarding the validated AR media. The conclusion of the first expert stated that this media is very suitable for use in EC education. The second expert stated that there were some technical inconsistencies, but these did not significantly affect its usability, so ETBARM could proceed to the trial stage.

Furthermore, the FGD results showed several suggestions for improving media, including the need to add an initial explanation about the types of natural disasters, whether caused by human actions or natural phenomena, the use of real mountain images for greater realism and the addition of lava flood content to enrich the material. Teachers also suggested adding a disaster mitigation section at the end of the lesson as an effort to foster disaster-responsive attitudes in children. Additionally, illustrations of children littering were added as part of education on behaviours that could trigger environmental disasters. Teachers also suggested adding a disaster mitigation section at the end of the lesson as an effort to foster disaster-responsive attitudes in children. Additionally, illustrations of children’s littering were added as part of education on behaviours that could trigger environmental disasters.

As a follow-up, a special guidebook was developed for teachers to assist in the effective use of ETBARM in the classroom. This guidebook has been validated by two media and learning experts to ensure the suitability of the content and ease of use. Furthermore, an assessment instrument for EC science skills was developed, covering aspects of knowledge, skills and scientific attitudes. Following this, the AR media prototype was revised. In addition, a small-scale trial was conducted involving three kindergarten teachers and 15 kindergarten children with the code AK. During this small trial, the system functioned effectively, with minimal disruption to the utilisation of ETBARM. In the study, teachers employed a combination of one laptop and one mobile phone as aids. The composition of the group is as follows: there are five groups in total, with each group consisting of three members.

During the activity, the researchers asked the children to try the ETBARM in turns. All the children appeared enthusiastic about observing the use of AR media in front of the class. During ETBARM practice, the children demonstrated a high level of curiosity. They observed the flood visualisations appearing on the device screens and began connecting them to the explanations provided earlier. While waiting for their turns, children remained focused and occasionally commented on what they saw. Overall, the learning atmosphere was active, orderly and conducive. Technical challenges, such as a shortage of devices and network signal disruptions, occurred during the use of ETBARM, but the children patiently waited until the media functioned normally again. At the end of the session, some children were able to explain the causes and effects of flooding based on what they observed through the ETBARM.

The learning process proceeded in an orderly fashion; however, a revision to the guidebook was subsequently issued. The previous edition of the guidebook stipulated that the composition of each group should be two to three children. Following a small-scale trial, the protocol was revised to stipulate that each group should comprise four children with one piece of equipment, a laptop or a handphone.

The implementation phase included ToT activities and small classroom trials. Training of Trainers activities were provided to kindergarten teachers as prospective users of AR media to help understand how to operate media, use the guidebook and effectively integrate content into EC science education. During the ToT, teachers provided suggestions regarding the guidebook for using ETBARM with a laptop through a link.

The field trial occurred over four meetings at four kindergartens (BK, CK, DK and EK) located in Padang City. During this phase, the children participated in learning activities in small groups facilitated by educators who had received special training. Sessions one and two focused on the science theme of melting mountains, while three and four focused on the theme of flooding. The activity started with the teacher explaining the material as an introduction to build children’s awareness about the importance of understanding the topic being studied before using AR media. Subsequently, the children were divided into small groups to explore directly using laptops and smartphones available in the classroom. The ETBARM allowed children to make three-dimensional visualisations and actively interact with the scientific phenomena shown, in accordance with the cognitive development stage. The results of observations and semi-structured interviews at four kindergartens are presented. The following essay will explore the implementation of AR media in the classroom.

The implementation of ETBARM in four kindergartens proceeded in a satisfactory manner, successfully capturing the attention of the young learners. To address these issues, teachers employed a range of management strategies. BK employed a projector and provided lucid explanations; CK orchestrated group activities; DK surmounted equipment and initial heat-related challenges; and EK meticulously prepared the devices through structured, turn-based sessions. The overall experience of ETBARM learning was found to be engaging and well-managed.

Secondly, the challenges encountered must be addressed. The primary challenges encountered pertained to device constraints and the unreliability of internet connections. The occurrence of delays in the BK and CK cases was attributed to limitations inherent in the utilisation of smartphones. The DK case exhibited suboptimal connectivity, a factor that exerted a negative influence on the children’s patience levels. The EK case involved the incorporation of additional devices to mitigate signal-related challenges. Teachers successfully addressed this issue by implementing a systematic approach to scheduling, establishing age-appropriate groups and offering a variety of engaging activities.

Thirdly, consideration must be given to the responses of children. The children demonstrated a notable level of enthusiasm, curiosity and active participation. The study found that ETBARM learning was perceived as more enjoyable than traditional methods, with some participants even assisting their peers. Teachers noted a lively and interactive classroom atmosphere.

After the implementation was completed, an evaluation phase was conducted through an FGD with the team members directly participating in the implementation process in the field. In this discussion, each individual presented their respective observations during the implementation of learning using ETBARM in the classroom. The first participant showed that the use of AR media required a stable internet signal. In some sessions, children had to wait quite a long time because the media loaded slowly, primarily because of a poor signal or devices with full storage capacity. The second participant also emphasised the same constraints, namely the limited number of devices available at the school and the poor quality of the internet network, which hindered the smooth use of media. The third participant confirmed similar results, adding that the technological infrastructure at the partner kindergarten was still inadequate to support the optimal use of AR media. Children’s EC science abilities were assessed using a pre-test and post-test observation instrument obtained from observations made by teachers and the research team. On the first day of the field trial, pre-test data were obtained, and on the last day of the field trial, post-test data were obtained. The table of scores obtained is included in the Online Appendix 1.

The results showed that there was a significant enhancement in the mean score, escalating from 22.18 in the initial to 28.75 in the subsequent evaluation. This suggests that ETBARM has a positive effect on children’s science understanding. The increment of 6.57 points underscores the efficacy of media in presenting content tangibly and engagingly. To evaluate the significance of the difference between pre-test and post-test scores, a Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test was used (Table 4a and Table 4b). This non-parametric test was selected because of the paired nature of the data and the absence of normal distribution.

The empirical results demonstrated a statistically significant enhancement in the scientific learning outcomes following the implementation of ETBARM. The findings revealed that all 58 participants demonstrated elevated post-assessment scores in comparison to their initial assessment scores. The positive ranks equalled 45, the negative ranks equalled zero, and the ties equalled 13. This result suggests a consistent improvement in academic performance across the entire cohort. The Z-value of –6.637, when considered in conjunction with a significance level of p = 0.001, provides substantial evidence to support the hypothesis that the intervention had a significant and uniform positive influence on the conceptual comprehension of scientific subjects. To ascertain the significance of the discrepancy between the pre-test and post-test scores, a Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test was employed (see Table 4a and 4b). The selection of this non-parametric test was made on the basis of the paired nature of the data and the absence of a normal distribution.

During the implementation of ETBARM within the classroom context, qualitative analyses and expert evaluations showed a variety of beneficial effects on children’s engagement and developmental processes. Participants showed an increased sense of curiosity and enthusiasm while interacting with the AR content, specifically during the scanning of markers and the observation of dynamic simulations of natural phenomena, including volcanic eruptions and floods. This immersive experience not only captivated attention but also augmented the capacity to articulate scientific occurrences in coherent sequences, thereby showing enhanced conceptual comprehension. Media also facilitated peer interaction, as children assisted one another in using the technology, exchanged insights and participated in group dialogues and communicative learning. Additionally, the lifelike visuals and interactive components of media contributed to increased emotional engagement and enhanced focus on learning. Children showed responses characterised by concern, empathy and excitement, linking the environmental scenarios to personal experiences. These interactive engagements fostered inquiry-based learning by stimulating behaviour such as questioning, predicting and reflecting. In summary, the integration of AR media not only advanced children’s scientific knowledge but also cultivated socio-emotional growth and collaborative learning abilities in a significant and age-appropriate manner.

The findings demonstrated that the group utilising projectors attained notably higher gain scores in comparison to the kindergarten that exclusively employed ETBARM without projectors. This finding indicates that the presence of projectors can enhance the effectiveness of ETBARM by magnifying visualisations, allowing children to see digital objects more clearly and together, while simultaneously overcoming the limitations of the number of devices. Pre-test and post-test science abilities were obtained from the observations of teaching staff and the research team. These were then compared between classes that used projectors and classes that did not use projectors. The study found that there were 33 children in classes that used projectors and 25 in classes that did not use projectors. The findings indicated a substantial discrepancy between the two groups, with the projector-utilising classes demonstrating a higher level of performance. The statistical test is demonstrated in Table 5a and Table 5b.