Teacher education programmes have long been challenged by what scholars describe as the persistent theory–practice divide, referring to the gap between the theoretical knowledge preservice teachers learn at university and the practical demands of classroom teaching (Darling-Hammond et al. 2017; Gravett 2012; Gravett & Ramsaroop 2017; Mavhunga & Van der Merwe 2020). This divide is often because of the structural organisation of teacher education programmes, which typically separate coursework from classroom practice or, in the South African context, work-integrated learning (Gravett 2012; Gravett & Jiyane 2019; Korthagen 2010). As a result, many preservice teachers enter the profession feeling underprepared for the complexities of teaching, particularly in areas such as managing learner behaviour, designing meaningful assessments and adapting lessons to accommodate diverse learner needs (Darling-Hammond 2014; Gholam 2018; Kennedy 2016; Zeichner 2010).

In response to this enduring challenge, scholars have argued for the inclusion of practice learning, which can be defined as structured, practical opportunities within teacher education programmes that allow preservice teachers to apply pedagogical content knowledge in settings that closely resemble actual classrooms (Ball & Forzani 2009; Grossman et al. 2009; Lampert et al. 2013). Practice learning is increasingly recognised as a promising way of bridging the so-called theory–practice divide (Darling-Hammond 2014; Gravett 2012; Gravett et al. 2023; Zeichner 2010). Practice learning activities typically include micro-lesson teaching and school placements or work-integrated learning, although the extent to which they effectively bridge the divide depends on how intentionally and systematically they are designed and implemented.

Although practice learning holds promise, traditional forms, such as those mentioned above, often fall short of fully preparing preservice teachers for classroom realities. For example, Allen and Wright (2014) observed that micro-lesson teaching, where preservice teachers deliver scripted lessons to peers in small, controlled settings, is largely ineffective because it does not expose them to realistic classroom challenges, such as diverse learner needs, behavioural issues, or in-the-moment lesson adaptations. Similarly, McDonald, Kazemi and Kavanagh (2013) argued that micro-lesson teaching oversimplifies teaching and does not prepare preservice teachers for the unpredictability and complexity of real classrooms. In the case of work-integrated learning, particularly in the South African context, Gravett and Ramsaroop (2015) observed that school placements often take place in under-resourced schools with limited mentoring and inconsistent support for preservice teachers, which considerably reduces its effectiveness. These limitations highlight the need for more authentic practice learning experiences.

One promising approach is the use of mixed reality simulations (MRS), which combines physical and virtual elements to create immersive learning environments where preservice teachers can practice core teaching skills, such as questioning and managing learner behaviour in a safe and controlled setting that closely resembles a real classroom (Dieker et al. 2014; Gravett et al. 2023; Nel, Dieker & Marais 2024; Schutt, Miles-Keogh & Linegar 2022). During these simulations, trained simulation specialists control avatar learners, who respond in real time as actual children would, enabling preservice teachers to engage in authentic and realistic practice learning activities.

At the heart of effective MRS lies the concept of fidelity, which refers to how closely a simulation resembles the real world (Hughes et al. 2015; Rothgeb 2008). Paige and Morin (2013) described three aspects of simulation fidelity: physical fidelity, which relates to the equipment and environment; psychological fidelity, which reflects how believable the simulation feels to participants; and conceptual fidelity, which concerns how accurately the simulation represents real professional challenges and contexts. Ensuring the right level of fidelity across these dimensions is important for creating practice learning experiences that closely resemble actual classroom teaching.

Central to maintaining fidelity in MRS are the simulation specialists, also known as digital puppeteers, who control avatar behaviours and responses during simulation sessions. These specialists play a vital role in creating realistic classroom scenarios by adjusting avatars’ movements, voices, and personalities to mimic authentic learner behaviours (Dieker et al. 2014; Schutt et al. 2022). Their skill in sustaining fidelity is essential for ensuring that simulations closely reflect actual classroom teaching.

Although MRS are increasingly used in preservice teacher education programmes, there is a notable dearth of research on the experiences of simulation specialists in maintaining fidelity during mixed reality sessions. Most studies focus on preservice teachers’ experiences or learning outcomes, rather than the perspectives of those who are responsible for creating and managing the simulated learning environment. Yet, simulation specialists play an important role in ensuring that the simulation mirrors the complexity and authenticity of real classroom interactions. Without insight into their experiences, there is a lack of understanding of the processes, challenges and professional judgement involved in maintaining fidelity, which is a key determining factor of the educational value of simulations. This highlights a key gap in the literature regarding how fidelity is achieved in MRS for teacher education.

This gap is especially significant in a context such as South Africa, where cultural, language, and socioeconomic factors require simulation scenarios and avatar behaviours to be carefully adapted to reflect local classroom realities. Understanding how simulation specialists experience maintaining fidelity in such contexts is therefore vital for the meaningful use of MRS in teacher education, both locally and in other diverse settings.

This study addresses this gap by exploring the experiences of simulation specialists involved in a MRS intervention at a South African university. Specifically, the research is guided by the following question: How do simulation specialists experience maintaining fidelity during a MRS intervention? The objective of the study, therefore, was to explore how simulation specialists experience and make sense of maintaining fidelity during a MRS intervention. By focusing on this underexplored perspective, the study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of what it takes to design and facilitate high-fidelity MRS that are contextually relevant and pedagogically sound.

This study followed a generic qualitative research design, which is well-suited for exploring participants’ experiences and perspectives within specific contexts (Merriam & Tisdell 2016). This design type was considered most appropriate for exploring the simulation specialists’ experiences in maintaining fidelity during MRS sessions, as it allowed for a flexible exploration of their perspectives without relying on predetermined theoretical assumptions (Caelli, Ray & Mill 2003). The research approach was interpretive in nature (Schwartz-Shea & Yanow 2012), focusing on generating insights into how simulation specialists maintain fidelity during MRS.

The study used purposive sampling to select 10 simulation specialists who facilitated MRS sessions over three academic years (2023–2025). Participants were selected because they had completed the simulation specialist training programme and were actively involved in the mixed reality intervention, ensuring that they had direct experience relevant to the research focus. All participants were postgraduate students at Honours or Master’s level, specialising in Childhood Education at the university where the study took place, and had been specifically recruited and trained for their roles in the simulation intervention. At the time of data collection, all participants had completed the simulation specialist training programme and had experience in facilitating multiple sessions with different cohorts of preservice teachers across English and Mathematics.

Data were collected through semi-structured focus group interviews with the simulation specialists in each academic year (2023–2025), which were conducted after the preservice teachers had completed all three of their simulation lessons. Participants were invited to join the focus group interviews via email, which included information about the study’s purpose and the voluntary nature of participation. The interviews followed a semi-structured schedule focusing on key areas related to maintaining fidelity in MRS, including participants’ understanding of their roles, experiences in simulating realistic learner behaviours, challenges encountered, strategies developed to address these challenges, and their perceptions of how accurately the simulations reflected real classroom settings.

Focus group interviews were conducted after all the simulation sessions were concluded in a specific semester. The timing was deliberate, allowing participants to reflect on their experiences after facilitating many simulation sessions. Each interview was held virtually on Microsoft Teams, allowing participants from different locations to join conveniently. The interviews were moderated by the first author of the article, who guided discussions using open-ended questions while allowing participants to elaborate and interact freely. Participants were encouraged to discuss and reflect on their experiences, share examples and respond to one another’s perspectives. Focus groups were chosen over individual interviews to encourage discussion and interaction among participants, which can generate richer insights by drawing on diverse perspectives and experiences (Krueger 2014). The focus group setting also enabled the participants to build on each other’s responses, providing a more nuanced understanding of their collective experiences of maintaining fidelity during simulations. Each focus group interview was audio-recorded on Microsoft Teams with participants’ consent and lasted approximately 90 min.

The focus group interviews were transcribed verbatim and analysed using inductive thematic analysis, following the approach put forward by Braun and Clarke (2006). This approach identifies patterns of meaning across datasets through a systematic process of familiarisation, coding, categorisation, refinement, and final theme generation. The analysis began with multiple readings of the transcripts to become familiar with the data and note initial areas of interest. The researchers then conducted line-by-line coding, highlighting meaningful segments of text and assigning descriptive codes. Codes were developed inductively, without predetermined categories, allowing them to emerge naturally from the data. Next, the codes were reviewed and grouped into provisional categories through an iterative process of comparison and contrasting. After several rounds of refinement, four final themes were generated, which are presented and discussed in the following sections.

Throughout the analysis, the researchers remained reflexive about their own assumptions and potential biases. Being involved in the broader MRS project, they recognised their insider position and took care to ensure that the analysis was guided by participants’ perspectives rather than preconceived expectations (Schwartz-Shea & Yanow 2012).

This study explored the experiences of simulation specialists in maintaining fidelity during MRS used in preservice teacher education. The findings capture the simulation specialists’ experiences, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of current simulation technology and emphasising the skills and knowledge required to simulate authentic learner behaviour and maintain fidelity during simulations. The study addressed a gap identified by Ade-Ojo et al. (2022:872), who noticed the need for ‘conceptual research … into simulation in education, how to conduct a simulation and what fidelity means in this context’. Enhancing simulation specialists’ skills through targeted training could help them to maintain fidelity more effectively, thereby improving preservice teachers’ practice learning experiences and bridging the gap between theory and practice in teacher education.

The simulation specialists in this study initially found it challenging to convey authentic emotions and complex classroom dynamics through the avatar learners. Their experiences reflect broader difficulties in simulation-based education, where psychological fidelity, or the believability of participants’ experiences, often proves more difficult to achieve than technical or physical fidelity (Paige & Morin 2013; Rothgeb 2008). The simulation specialists reported that sequential avatar responses could not fully capture the simultaneous conversations that are typical of a real classroom, limiting their ability to replicate large classroom dynamics and emotional complexity in their simulations. This has important implications for teacher education programmes that utilise MRS as part of their preservice teacher preparation, as teaching involves navigating learners’ emotional needs, managing classroom interactions, and adapting to unpredictable situations (Hargreaves 2000; Van der Merwe 2022). Despite these challenges, the specialists’ awareness of these limitations and their proactive adaptation strategies suggest that enhanced training in emotional portrayal could improve fidelity and the overall learning experience of the preservice teachers involved.

Specialists also described the tension between maintaining fidelity and supporting preservice teachers. At times, they wanted to guide and support the preservice teachers rather than respond as real children would, requiring continuous real-time decisions about when to prioritise realism versus supporting the preservice teachers who were struggling to deliver effective lessons. This highlights the pedagogical knowledge needed to deliver effective simulations (Gaba 2007). By adjusting scenario difficulty and their responses to individual preservice teachers’ needs, the simulation specialists were able to provide scaffolded and personalised learning experiences, demonstrating that simulations can complement traditional practice learning while accommodating preservice teachers’ different approaches to lesson enactment (Budin 2024; Wood, Bruner & Ross 1976).

Cultural contextualisation played a key role in enhancing the fidelity of simulations. The simulation specialists spent a lot of time preparing culturally authentic scenarios, including familiar languages, behaviours, and classroom routines. Research shows that culturally relevant learning experiences can boost engagement and learning outcomes (Gay 2018). For preservice teachers preparing to work in South Africa’s diverse classrooms, these scenarios offer useful exposure to real classroom challenges and dynamics. At the same time, the amount of preparation needed raises questions about sustainability and resources, highlighting the importance of careful planning when implementing culturally relevant simulations.

Over time, the simulation specialists became more comfortable in their learner roles, moving from rigid simulations of learners to more natural, child-like portrayals. This increased confidence enhanced the psychological fidelity of the simulations, as avatars responded more spontaneously and authentically to the preservice teachers’ lessons. Enjoyment and engagement in their role as learners supported this shift, demonstrating the value of role immersion in creating authentic learning experiences (Lindgren et al. 2016). The training that the simulation specialists underwent helped them to shift from acting as coaches to fully embodying the learners’ personas. The training, therefore, was a vital component in maintaining conceptual fidelity, ensuring that the simulation specialists’ responses reflected learner behaviours rather than providing unintended guidance. While negotiating their professional identity in the learner role can be challenging, specialists reported that it ultimately strengthened the fidelity of the simulations, highlighting the importance of ongoing support and reflection. The identity blurring described by the specialists, while potentially challenging professional boundaries, appeared to enhance rather than compromise fidelity during the simulations. This phenomenon aligns with research on simulation-based education that suggests facilitator investment in roles can improve the authenticity of learning experiences (Alinier & Oriot 2022; Huang, Chen & Tseng 2025). However, the findings also highlight the importance of ongoing training and support to help simulation specialists navigate these identity negotiations while maintaining fidelity in simulations.

Maintaining fidelity in MRS requires specialists to juggle technology constraints, emotional expression, cultural relevance, learning goals, and their own professional role simultaneously. This underscores that the role of simulation specialists extends beyond operating simulation technology to encompass pedagogical, cultural, and performative expertise, or ‘acting’ (Munshi, Lababidi & Alyousef 2015). The South African context of this study adds to the limited literature on simulation-based teacher education in developing simulations tailored to specific educational contexts, offering insights into culturally responsive and adaptive strategies that can inform implementation elsewhere.

While MRS cannot fully replace authentic classroom experiences, they offer valuable practice learning opportunities that complement traditional experiences, such as work-integrated learning and micro lessons (Budin 2024). When well designed and delivered by trained specialists, simulations can provide engaging, culturally relevant, rich learning experiences, supporting preservice teachers in bridging the theory–practice gap.

This study provides insights into the experiences of simulation specialists in maintaining fidelity during MRS for preservice teacher education. The findings highlight the complexity of their role, showing that maintaining fidelity requires balancing technical constraints, session objectives, cultural relevance, and their professional role as simulators.

Simulation specialists faced challenges in conveying authentic emotions and capturing the complexity of classroom dynamics, as the simulation technology could not fully replicate the complexity of real classrooms. At the same time, they struggled to maintain fidelity when they felt the need to support preservice teachers, sometimes responding in ways that real learners would not, which required constant judgement to balance realism with support for the preservice teachers. Cultural contextualisation enhanced the fidelity of the simulations, providing preservice teachers with meaningful exposure to the dynamics of diverse South African classrooms, but preparing these scenarios demanded significant time and effort. Over time, specialists grew more confident in their learner roles, embracing playful, child-like behaviours that allowed for more spontaneous and authentic responses, ultimately improving the fidelity of simulation sessions.

These findings indicate that maintaining fidelity in MRS is a multifaceted challenge requiring technical skill, pedagogical knowledge, and cultural understanding. While the current simulation technology offers valuable opportunities for preservice teachers to practice teaching in safe and controlled environments, it cannot fully replicate the emotional depth, social interactions, or cultural nuances of real classrooms. This suggests that even when simulation specialists demonstrate high levels of competence, their ability to maintain fidelity in simulations is inherently constrained by the limitations of the technology and the simulated context. As such, fidelity is always negotiated rather than fully achieved.

To address these challenges, training for simulation specialists should focus on authentic emotional portrayal, cultural adaptation, and staying true to their learner role rather than guiding preservice teachers. Ongoing professional development can help refine these skills, and institutions should customise simulation scenarios to their specific educational and cultural contexts instead of relying on generic content.

Despite these limitations, this study shows that when implemented thoughtfully, MRS can provide meaningful, scaffolded practice that complements traditional classroom experience, accommodate diverse teaching approaches, and help bridge the theory–practice divide in preservice teacher education.