This study draws on Shulman’s concept of general pedagogical knowledge (GPK) to understand how teachers use teaching and learning materials to support reading instruction in Grade 1 Sepedi classrooms. Shulman (1987) defines GPK as the practical knowledge teachers develop through experience about how to organise instruction, manage classrooms and use educational resources effectively during lessons.

Leijen et al. (2022) further describe GPK as subject-transcendent knowledge related to teaching and learning processes, classroom management and educational contexts that support learners’ development and motivation. From this perspective, GPK focuses on how teachers organise learning processes, guide learner participation and apply instructional strategies across different subjects.

Although GPK encompasses several domains of teaching knowledge, this study specifically uses GPK to examine how teachers organise reading instruction through the use of structured literacy materials in Grade 1 Sepedi classrooms. The framework is useful for analysing how teachers sequence lessons, manage classroom participation, adapt instructional pacing and use teaching materials such as teacher guides and readers to support learners’ engagement with reading activities.

Previous studies have examined the role of instructional materials in literacy classrooms. Some focus on the use of children’s storybooks to support reading engagement (Dornbrack & Kazungu 2022; Stranger-Johannessen & Norton 2019), while others examine learner workbooks as tools for reinforcing classroom instruction (Hoadley & Galant 2016; Mathews, Mdluli & Ramsingh 2014; McKay & Spaull 2022; Qhibi, Dhlamini & Chuene 2020). Other studies explore structured literacy programmes that combine teacher manuals, learner workbooks and teacher development initiatives, showing improvements in teachers’ knowledge and learners’ outcomes (Mtsatse 2022; Piper & Dubeck 2024; Piper et al. 2021).

However, relatively little research has examined how teachers enact materials such as teacher guides and readers during classroom reading instruction, particularly in indigenous African language contexts. Effective use of these materials may require teachers to organise lessons systematically, support learners’ participation and adapt instructional practices to different classroom needs.

In this study, GPK therefore provides an analytical lens for examining how teachers use the Room to Read Sepedi teacher guide and reader to organise reading lessons, structure classroom activities and support learner participation during early reading instruction. The framework further assists in understanding how instructional materials mediate classroom practice within rural Grade 1 Sepedi classrooms.

This study investigated how teachers used the Room to Read Sepedi teaching and learning materials to support structured reading instruction in Grade 1 classrooms. A qualitative multiple-case study design was employed to examine teachers’ instructional practices across different rural school contexts (Cohen, Manion & Morrison 2018). The multiple-case study approach enabled an in-depth exploration of how structured literacy materials were enacted across four schools participating in the Room to Read Sepedi Literacy Programme.

Four primary schools were selected, with each school treated as a separate case. The design allowed for comparisons across classrooms while providing insight into how teachers used instructional materials to support early reading instruction in Sepedi. The study was guided by Shulman’s concept of GPK, which focuses on teachers’ instructional practices and their use of teaching materials during classroom instruction.

The study was conducted in four rural primary schools located in the Sekhukhune District of Limpopo province. To protect the identities and anonymity of the schools, pseudonyms are used: Brick Primary School, Sandy Primary School, Grass Primary School and Muddy Primary School. The schools are situated between 30 km and 50 km apart.

All schools offered instruction in Sepedi and English. In these quintile 1–3 schools, Sepedi was used as the language of learning and teaching in the Foundation Phase, while English became the medium of instruction from Grade 4 onwards. The schools participated in the Room to Read Sepedi Literacy Programme, which provided structured teaching materials, including teacher guides and graded readers, as well as ongoing PD and instructional coaching for teachers.

Purposive sampling was used to select four Grade 1 Sepedi Home Language teachers from rural quintile 1 schools participating in the Room to Read Sepedi Literacy Programme (Strydom 2021). The participants were selected because they regularly used the programme’s teaching and learning materials during reading instruction.

All participating teachers were female Sepedi-speaking teachers who had received PD training and ongoing coaching support through the programme. Their teaching experience ranged from 4 years to 40 years. Focusing on a small sample enabled deeper engagement with each classroom context and teachers’ instructional practices.

The participant selection criteria included:

Data were collected through document review, non-participant classroom observations and semi-structured individual interviews to enable triangulation across multiple data sources (Cohen et al. 2018).

Documents analysed included the Room to Read Sepedi teacher guide, Sepedi readers and the Sepedi Home Language Grade 1 CAPS curriculum. The review focused on how reading instruction, lesson sequencing, vocabulary development and morphological patterns were represented within the materials.

Non-participant classroom observations were conducted across the four schools. A total of 24 reading lessons were observed, with six observations conducted per school. Each observation lasted approximately 1 h to 1 h and 5 min.

The observations focused on how teachers used the Room to Read Sepedi teacher guide and reader to structure reading instruction, support learner participation and teach foundational reading skills such as phonics, vocabulary and syllable reading. Observation sheets and field notes were used to document classroom activities, teachers’ practices and learners’ engagement during lessons.

The observed classrooms were mixed-gender classrooms, with class sizes ranging from approximately 18 to 66 learners, reflecting typical rural schooling contexts within the district.

Semi-structured individual face-to-face interviews were conducted with the four participating teachers. The interviews were conducted individually after school hours in quiet spaces within the school premises. Each interview lasted between 1 h and 1 h and 30 min.

The interviews explored teachers’ experiences of using the Room to Read Sepedi teaching and learning materials during reading instruction, including lesson preparation, learners’ participation and instructional support practices. An interview schedule guided the discussions, while follow-up questions were used to allow participants to elaborate on their experiences where necessary.

With participants’ permission, interviews were audio-recorded using a digital voice recorder to support accurate data capture and transcription. Participants were informed about the recording process and signed informed consent forms prior to participation.

Data were analysed using inductive thematic analysis following Braun and Clarke’s (2021) six-step framework. The analysis included data from interviews, classroom observations, field notes and document review.

The first step involved familiarisation with the dataset through repeated reading of interview transcripts, observation notes and documents. The interviews, originally conducted in Sepedi, were translated into English during transcription. Initial codes were then generated manually across the dataset to identify recurring instructional practices and patterns related to the use of structured literacy materials.

Similar codes were grouped into categories, which were then organised into broader themes. The themes were reviewed and refined by comparing them across interviews, observations and documents to identify consistencies and differences across the cases. The final themes focused on lesson pacing, the use of instructional materials and inclusive classroom practices.

Coding and theme development were conducted manually rather than through qualitative analysis software. Manual analysis enabled close engagement with the translated interview data and supported careful interpretation of meaning within the Sepedi classroom context.

To strengthen trustworthiness, triangulation was conducted across the different data sources, and member checking was used to confirm the accuracy of interpretations.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Faculty of Education Ethics Committee of the University of Pretoria (No. EDU001/23). Written informed consent was obtained from all individual participants involved in the study. In addition, permission to conduct the study was granted by the provincial Department of Education, the participating schools and Room to Read South Africa. Participants provided informed consent, and pseudonyms were used to protect the identities of both schools and teachers. Participation was voluntary, and the study prioritised cultural sensitivity, respect and participant well-being throughout the research process.

The Sepedi Home Language CAPS provides guidelines for curriculum delivery, including instructional time, language of instruction and suggested classroom activities (see Figure 1). It also recommends the use of classroom resources such as big books, posters, pictures and texts to support the development of learners’ reading skills.

Document analysis shows that while CAPS recommends the use of such resources, it provides limited guidance on how reading lessons should be paced and sequenced. In contrast, the Room to Read Sepedi teacher guide provides more detailed instructional support. The guide outlines programme preparation, lesson sequencing, teaching strategies and guidance for supporting learners with different learning needs. It also presents an overview of reading components across the school terms and provides clearer direction on lesson pacing and delivery.

Although some elements align with CAPS expectations, the Room to Read teacher guide offers more explicit guidance on how teachers should allocate time to reading activities and sequence instruction. The guide also introduces instructional strategies such as the Gradual Release of Responsibility (GRR) model, the ‘thumbs-up and thumbs-down’ response technique and the ‘full hand’ strategy for word construction. These strategies do not explicitly appear in the Sepedi Home Language CAPS but form part of the structured instructional support embedded in the Room to Read materials.

Classroom observations across the four schools showed that teachers consistently used the Room to Read Sepedi teacher guide to structure their lessons. Lessons typically began with the revision of previously taught letters or sounds before introducing new alphabetic codes and vocabulary. Learners then engaged in activities such as air-tracing letters, practising sounds, building words and participating in shared reading activities.

For example:

Teacher Pen began her lesson by revising the vowel “e,” which had been introduced in the previous session. She pronounced the sound “e,” wrote the symbol “le” on the board and introduced the word “ema” to contextualise the vowel. This approach reflected the phonological structure of Sepedi vowels and supported learners’ understanding of sound-symbol relationships. (Classroom observation, 05 February 2024).

Teacher Pencil revised the letter “o” before introducing the consonant “m” and familiar vocabulary words. Learners practised air tracing and used the full hand strategy to construct words from syllables. (Classroom observation, 15 February 2024).

Teacher Ruler conducted lessons in the school library, where learners revised the letter “o” before engaging in shared reading activities. Learners were invited to write on the smart board, encouraging active participation during the reading lesson. (Classroom observation, 05 March 2024).

Teacher Sharpener began the lesson by revising the letter “l.” Learners traced the sound in the air, sang a song related to the letter and matched it with other vowels. Flashcards were used to demonstrate the differences between vowel and consonant sounds. (Classroom observation, 07 February 2024).

Teachers also emphasised the importance of adjusting lesson pacing to accommodate learners with different levels of understanding. As one teacher explained:

This highlights how teachers deliberately adapted lesson pacing to support learners’ participation during reading activities.

Overall, the findings suggest that lesson pacing and delivery were strongly mediated by the Room to Read Sepedi teacher guide. Teachers relied on the guide to organise lessons, revise previously taught content and introduce new concepts systematically. Although some lessons exceeded the time allocated in CAPS, teachers prioritised deeper learning and learners’ participation.

These practices reflect key features of structured pedagogy, where well-designed teaching materials guide lesson sequencing and instructional delivery. Through the integration of reading components such as phonics, vocabulary development and shared reading, the materials supported teachers in structuring reading instruction while responding to learners’ diverse learning needs.

The findings indicate that the Sepedi Home Language CAPS provides limited guidance on how teaching and learning materials should be integrated into Grade 1 Sepedi reading lessons. Although the DBE distributes Rainbow Workbooks to Foundation Phase learners in government schools, there is limited evidence on whether teachers receive adequate guidance on how to integrate these materials into classroom instruction.

In contrast, the Room to Read Sepedi Literacy Programme provides teachers with structured teaching materials, including the Sepedi teacher guide and Sepedi readers. Teachers participating in the programme also receive training on how to use these materials to support reading instruction in Grade 1 and Grade 2. Interviews with teacher participants across the four case study schools indicated that the Room to Read teacher guide and reader were the primary materials used during Sepedi reading lessons.

Teachers explained that the teacher guide supported lesson planning, while the Sepedi reader reinforced phonics, morphological awareness, vocabulary and comprehension activities during classroom instruction. Some teachers also integrated additional curriculum materials, including the DBE Sepedi workbook and the Annual Teaching Plan (ATP), to align their lessons with the Sepedi Home Language CAPS.

For example, one teacher explained how the materials were used together during reading instruction:

Teachers further indicated that they consulted the CAPS and ATP to identify the sounds or content that should be taught, while relying on the Room to Read teacher guide for detailed lesson guidance.

For instance, one teacher explained:

Document analysis also shows that the Room to Read Sepedi teacher guide (see Table 1) provides a structured lesson timetable that links the teacher guide with the Sepedi reader, specifying weekly topics, page references and suggested activities for reading instruction.

The structured layout of the teacher guide appeared to assist teachers in organising lessons and identifying which sounds or reading components should be introduced each week.

Classroom observations across the four schools further confirmed the consistent use of the Room to Read materials during reading lessons. Teachers frequently referred to the Sepedi teacher guide for lesson guidance while directing learners to the Sepedi reader to practise sounds, vocabulary and short comprehension texts.

For example, Teacher Pen used the teacher guide to introduce the letter ‘i’ and later revised the same letter before introducing a new sound (Classroom observation, 19-23 February 2024).

Unlike the other teachers, Teacher Pencil conducted a shared reading lesson using a Big Book from the school library donated by the Room to Read Sepedi Literacy Programme. She read the text aloud while pointing to the words to help learners follow the printed text (Classroom observation, 13 February 2024).

Teacher Ruler taught the vowel sound ‘o’ using both the teacher guide and reader (Classroom observation, 04 March 2024). Similarly, Teacher Sharpener taught the letter sound ‘d’ while integrating both materials during the lesson (Classroom observation, 07 February 2024).

Across several lessons, teachers revised previously taught sounds before introducing new letters or vocabulary. Learners engaged in activities such as tracing letters, reading syllables, interpreting pictures and answering comprehension questions based on short texts.

The findings show that teachers across the four case study schools consistently integrated the Room to Read Sepedi teacher guide and reader into their reading lessons. The teacher guide was mainly used for lesson preparation and instructional guidance, while the reader supported classroom practice through vocabulary activities, short texts and picture interpretation.

Classroom observations further showed that learners participated in activities such as tracing letters, reading syllables, building words and expanding vocabulary from familiar base words. These practices supported early reading development while introducing elements of morphological awareness through word-building and vocabulary expansion.

The structured design of the Room to Read Sepedi materials enabled teachers to sequence lessons systematically, revising previously taught sounds before introducing new letter-sound relationships. Across the four schools, the consistent use of these materials supported organised lesson delivery and learner participation during Sepedi reading instruction.

The Room to Read Sepedi teacher guide includes practical guidance for teachers on managing multilingual classrooms, organising classroom activities and communicating effectively with learners. The guide provides strategies for grouping learners, establishing classroom routines, supporting independent work and responding constructively to learners’ answers. It also encourages teachers to accommodate learners with diverse learning needs and abilities (Document review – Room to Read Sepedi teacher guide).

These strategies align with the broader aims of the South African curriculum (see Table 2), which emphasise inclusivity and the importance of recognising and addressing barriers to learning.

Classroom observations across the four case study schools indicated that teachers applied these inclusive principles when using the Room to Read Sepedi materials. Teachers structured lessons in ways that allowed learners with different abilities to participate actively. Learners were encouraged to answer questions, participate in discussions and engage with lesson activities.

The materials themselves appeared accessible to learners. In all classrooms, the Room to Read Sepedi teacher guides and readers were readily available during lessons. Learners were frequently exposed to both spoken and written Sepedi through activities involving vocabulary development, syllable reading and short reading tasks.

Observation data further showed how teachers used the Sepedi reader to support inclusive participation. Teachers guided learners through activities such as tracing letters, reading syllables, building words and interpreting pictures. These activities supported vocabulary development and early word-building skills, allowing learners to engage with reading tasks at different levels.

For example, Teacher Pen used the reader while teaching the vowel sound ‘i’, where learners practised writing the letter in both lowercase and uppercase forms (Classroom observation, 19 February 2024).

Teacher Pencil used the reader to help learners build vocabulary using syllables. When some learners struggled, she paired stronger and weaker learners to support participation (Classroom observation, 15 February 2024).

Teacher Ruler asked learners to read a short comprehension passage from the Sepedi reader, while some learners read fluently, others experienced difficulties. The text consisted of short culturally relevant stories supported by illustrations (Classroom observation, 08 March 2024).

Similarly, Teacher Sharpener paired learners to read vocabulary words from the Sepedi reader. She first modelled the reading by pointing to the words before learners read together and then independently (Classroom observation, 20 February 2024).

Teachers also paired learners during reading activities, allowing stronger readers to support peers who required additional guidance. Teacher interviews further confirmed that the materials were considered accessible and appropriate for Grade 1 learners. Teachers highlighted that the Sepedi readers were clear, colourful and contextually relevant to learners’ environments. They also noted that the inclusion of pictures, syllables and short texts supported learners who progressed at different learning paces.

Overall, the findings suggest that the Room to Read Sepedi teaching and learning materials supported inclusive classroom practices. The structured layout of the teacher guide enabled teachers to organise lessons systematically, while the Sepedi reader provided accessible reading materials that supported vocabulary development, syllable recognition and early word-building activities.

Across the four schools, teachers adapted their instructional pace to accommodate learners with varying abilities. Activities such as revision, syllable reading and vocabulary practice allowed learners to consolidate previously taught content while gradually expanding their reading skills. These practices reflect key principles of structured pedagogy, where well-designed instructional materials support organised lesson delivery while enabling participation from learners with diverse learning needs.

The findings suggest that structured Sepedi teaching and learning materials can play an important role in supporting Grade 1 reading instruction. It is therefore recommended that literacy programmes such as the Room to Read Sepedi Literacy Programme continue to strengthen teachers’ use of instructional materials, including teacher guides and readers, to support organised and effective reading instruction in classrooms.

There is also a need to strengthen the development, distribution and classroom use of well-designed Sepedi reading materials that align with the Sepedi Home Language CAPS. Such materials can support teachers with lesson pacing, revision practices, syllable reading, vocabulary development and reading comprehension activities. Improving access to structured instructional materials may therefore contribute to more organised, inclusive and responsive reading instruction in the early grades.

Strengthening access to high-quality instructional materials in indigenous African languages may also contribute to improving early literacy outcomes in contexts where teachers often rely on structured guidance to support reading instruction.