This article is based on findings drawn from a large-scale study aimed at mapping barriers to education in the context of social disadvantage. The research sites focused on in this paper are: one early childhood facility, four primary schools and the communities of these learning centres. Participants included learners, teachers, caregivers and parents and interested community members. Findings from the study were published widely in a research report, book chapters and peer-reviewed publications. In this article an attempt is made to revisit the findings on child well-being and quality of life, drawing on debates on sustainable development, in particular on the concept of social sustainability. The analysis draws attention to the importance of creating cultures of social sustainability within social institutions and communities to enhance the well-being of children. The article highlights the significance of values that are rights based and collective networks in cultures of sustainability.
With the ratification of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) by most countries and the imperatives of the Millennium Development Goals (United Nations
Much of this body of work highlights the major influences on the well-being of children located in sociopolitical and economic contexts. However, most of these research agendas fail to integrate social science disciplines to enable an in-depth understanding of the complexities of children’s lives and their well-being, as argued by Kabiru
In the context of the above debates, this article interrogates findings from a case study research project conducted in a rural context in South Africa. The study aimed at mapping barriers to education in the context of social disadvantage. The findings of this study have been widely published in peer-reviewed journals and book chapters. In this article these findings are further interrogated to explore new meanings using the notion of social sustainability as a conceptual framework. The question put forth is: What sustainability aspects protect or impede the health and well-being of young children in the study context? How can the well-being of young children be enhanced in contexts of social disadvantage?
In this section, the concepts ‘child well-being’ and ‘social sustainability’ are examined as they are framing concepts for this article. The conceptualisation of
Hanafin and Brooks (
On the other hand, from a social rights perspective, constructions, indicators and gauges of well-being highlight enabling factors and processes that support children to reach their full potential (Statham & Chase
On another dimension, a risk and resilience perspective presents a dynamic and transactional conceptualisation of child well-being (Hanewald
An analysis of literature in the last decade suggests that, although a contested concept, many conceptualisations of child well-being foreground that it is multidimensional and ecological, and must take into consideration the complexity of children’s lives, contexts and relationships (Boyden & Mann
In this article an attempt is made to link debates on child well-being to those that focus on the concepts of sustainability and sustainable development. Sustainability is viewed as the goal or culmination of a process referred to as ‘sustainable development’. The majority of scholars agree that sustainable development promotes environmental, economic and social well-being for present as well as future generations (Diesendorf
However, the social well-being pillar of sustainability, referred to as social sustainability, has been marginalised in debates. According to Woodcraft (
Other scholars emphasise human well-being to suggest that some components of social well-being are sufficient food, good dwellings, personal security in terms of both physical and emotional dimensions, access to learning opportunities, opportunities for social interaction, a network of support to enhance the emotional dimension, opportunities for creative behaviour and a social context that respects human rights and does not foster a sense of alienation and exclusion (Leslie
To summarise, the key issues of interest for social sustainability may include: a sense of belonging and support, access (e.g. access to quality education and training, employment, social services and resources), health and well-being, safety and security, social capital and social networks, social cohesion, social inclusion and respect for the rights of different cultures, traditions and backgrounds, equitable distribution of income, employment opportunities, democracy and participation at local level. In general, there is a common perspective that social sustainability is about fostering, uplifting or maintaining the quality of life of people, including children, in a community and in society. Both the individual and collective are critical to social sustainability.
In the next section, the findings from the ‘mapping barriers to learning’ project, an in-depth qualitative case study (Muthukrishna
The study was undertaken in a rural context in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. Sampling was purposive. The research site, a small town and its surrounding areas, was selected for its unique social, political, economic and community history. The town is surrounded by agricultural farmlands with largely a migrant labour force and has a population of approximately 70 000 people living in semiformal and informal settlements. The town experienced intense political violence during the apartheid era. The aftermath of this particular history was high unemployment, poverty and antisocial behaviours such as substance abuse, unsafe sexual practices and crime. Although a process of peace and reconstruction had been underway at the time of the study, the high population mobility, high unemployment rates and the continued social fragmentation have resulted in high rates of HIV and/or AIDS infections (Killian
This article discusses findings from one rural early childhood centre and four rural primary schools and their communities. Sampling was purposive in that the focus was on the rural early childhood centres of learning which were part of the larger study. Participants included learners, teachers, caregivers and parents. An innovative aspect of the study was that researchers were committed to giving voice to children through participatory data generation tools. Influenced by debates that have emanated from the sociology of childhood (James
Data generation methods were semi-structured individual interviews and focus group interviews. A participatory approach to data production was followed to enable the production of knowledge in an active partnership with the participants (Babbie
In the study, a challenge was that original interviews and focus group discussions were done in
A key ethical issue in the project was upholding respect for all participants. As the research involved entering into the private spaces of participants, it had to be particularly responsive to issues of confidentiality and anonymity. Issues of informed consent, confidentiality, anonymity and voluntarism were engaged with in every phase of the project with all participants.
The team of researchers was very cognisant of the complexities of doing research with child participants that is authentic, respects their views and integrity, addresses the power imbalances that exist between adults and children, and is non-exploitative. We were also aware that we were doing research in a sociocultural and historical context in which children’s voices are seldom heard or listened to. For this reason, we adopted a reflexive stance as researchers throughout the research process that informed the development of child-friendly participatory research tools to maximise the participation of the children. As a team we committed to doing research
All participants signed informed consent forms either in English or isiZulu. Learners selected their own code names as pseudonyms within the focus group interviews. Learners were also given confidentiality pledges to sign (see Van der Riet
Through a case study approach, it was possible to triangulate the multiple facets of data obtained from the various participants and schooling settings through the various collection techniques. The data analysis process involved the coding and relating of concepts that emerged in the data. In the first step, recurring topics that emerged within and across the different data sets were identified. The topics were further scrutinised to isolate categories of meaning. The next step involved distinguishing patterns of relationships among categories. This process of pattern seeking involved searching for and making sense of the complex linkages between situations, beliefs, values, experiences, perspectives and actions. Generating patterns in the data meant seeking out recurring ideas, concepts, issues, perspectives and descriptions that represented the social reality (see Muthukrishna
The key findings documented in various peer-reviewed publications will be presented and critiqued to raise new questions and issues related to child well-being. The study revealed that childhood is a varied, fluid category shaped by sociocultural contexts. The analysis of published findings show that risk and resilience literature informed arguments and conceptualisations of child well-being in the research context (Govender & Ebrahim
Fraser and Terzian (
The study found that children in the research context face a multitude of risks and vulnerabilities, including being affected by HIV and/or AIDS, crime, substance abuse, poor health and safety in schools, corporal punishment, unequal access to education and healthcare, poverty and underdevelopment and exposure to social risks such as abuse of a physical or sexual nature (see Govender & Ebrahim
‘Children get raped. We heard there is a car that took children and raped them. So far nothing has happened. We have not seen anything. But we try to protect our children. We are forced to accompany them to school and fetch them after school. We have to watch our children. They have to play in front of us – cannot be out of sight.’ (Mother of preschool child)
A serious violation of the rights of learners is the inability of government and communities to provide basic services such as food, shelter and welfare services for the growing number of AIDS-related orphans:
‘I was having a child who was crying everyday, everyday reporting this and that. When parents died then he was living with the auntie. And the auntie said you don’t touch this food, it’s for my kids. So, it’s all those things.’ (Teacher)
The emotional distress of living in the context of the HIV/AIDS pandemic was seen in children’s fear of their own, or of a loved one’s death and sickness. For example, when asked: ‘What do you like about your life? What would you change about your life?’ What do you like about yourself? A Grade 3 learner responded:
‘I am happy that both my parents are still alive. I wish no one would die at home. I glad I am still alive.’ (FG3, Grade 3)
These risks are contextual in nature, emanating either from their own lives, immediate family, community or wider social contexts. The risks present a direct challenge to children in the study context. Jacobs and Harley (
Internationally, it is conceded that a school has a moral and legal function to contribute to children’s well-being and sound, healthy development. This is an important facet of the whole pedagogical enterprise as a child’s well-being is critical to curriculum access. A key task of a teacher is building competence in children and enhancing well-being to achieve positive learning and development outcomes. The study revealed that in many schools the well-being of children is placed at risk in schooling contexts. The narratives below highlight instances of violation of children’s right to protection and right to basic education entrenched in the South African legislation such as the
‘We are doing what we are not supposed to do. We hold their results at the end of the year and they (parents/caregivers) come in numbers, then they will pay and we release the reports. Even the parent pays in the following year. Now we are in 2005, the parent will pay in 2006 January. You know in order to see the class position of the child.’ (Teacher)
The study also indicated that some teachers choose not to act when faced with complex ethical issues, and in this way add to the vulnerability of children. For example in the following excerpt a teacher recounts how the school had not acted in a case of alleged child sexual abuse:
Like I got these two girls in my Grade 2 class. They are being raped by their relatives. One is the mother’s boyfriend and the other is the uncle.
Does the school have a support system for children? Who do they talk to?
What is being done by the school?
Not yet. Nothing is happening.
Ramsuran and Lurwenga (
The study suggests that it is important for administrators, school leaders, teachers and others in educational communities to recognise the sometimes hidden or taken for granted values that guide their actions and the action of others, and that these may have a detrimental impact on children’s well-being.
Protective processes are individual or contextual mechanisms that enhance resiliency through alleviating the negative impact of risk factors (Hanewald
In the study, alongside complex risk factors embedded in schooling contexts, family and community children’s narratives revealed protective and resiliency enhancing factors. This shows that the school community can play a critical role in enhancing children’s well-being. In the family, children spoke of the importance of warmth and support. The presence of external support systems that build, shape and reinforce children’s coping efforts did emerge in the findings, for example attentive friends in school, caring teachers and family members.
The study indicated that teachers in the schools enacted various kinds of care work outside the formal curriculum. Complex demands are made on them from learners, parents and the school communities related to issues of violence, abuse, poverty, orphanhood, teenage pregnancy, child abuse etc. for which most teachers have had limited professional development. Muthukrishna and Ramsuran (
‘I can make one example, we have a problem that sometimes during break time or when we are having chips, this and that, they have this habit of asking for money. And to us we are not used to that they ask for money because they are hungry, and we give it to them because we feel guilty.’ (Teacher)
‘There is a high rate of unemployment … yesterday I made calculations and noticed that 8% of my salary is going to the learners that come every day asking for money. It has become strained … and the department must do something about this.’ (Teacher)
In a Grade 6 focus group, learners commented on caring relationships and supportive communicative spaces in the school context. For example:
‘When I am walking with my friends to school, they make me forget things happening at home. If it is time to go back home I remember all the bad things that have been done to me.’ (Learner, Grade 6)
The study showed that friendships create opportunities for children to be themselves, to feel good about who they are and to gain social and emotional competence. These processes build resilience and enhance well-being.
The study indicated that children do have a sense of enjoyment of aspects of their lives such as going to church and engaging in recreational activities. They are also able to engage in critical thinking about events and issues in their lives, they are able to articulate a sense of purpose, a belief in a positive future and a developing sense of morality and spirituality. Research suggests that these have a significant impact on resilience (Bradshaw
Scholars argue that these protective factors have the potential to shape the strategies that children use to deal with traumatic situations and to shield themselves from distressing experiences and damage to their esteem (Boyden & Mann
‘I like to have security at school because the community comes here if there is no one here and steals the school food and school soccer kits.’ (Learner, grade 6)
Even Grade 3 children readily stated that using a condom prevented HIV infection and some of them demonstrated a fairly advanced understanding of the virus:
‘If you have TB it’s easy to get HIV because HIV eats your white blood cells that would have protected you from TB, and you end up thin like a mosquito.’ (School B, Grade 3)
There is a high prevalence of migrant labour in the study context and children are often cared for by other family members, often grandmothers. Parents are often away from children for protracted periods. To the children, happy times are when parents are at home, gifts of food, celebratory occasions and unveiling rituals:
‘It is the time when my mother comes back … when she comes home there are nice things at home, and I feel comfortable to stay with my mother.’
‘I am happy when they do a birthday for me.’
‘I was happy at Christmas because we eat nice things that we don’t eat every day.’
(Learners, focus group, grade 6)
Killian
‘We do like the crèche because young children get food at the crèche. Other children often do not get good food in the morning if they are not going to crèche. We like the teachers because they take care of our children.’ (mother, focus group)
A mother explained that food parcels and other support from a Day Care and Support Centre in one of the communities are critical to the survival of families. However, Jacobs and Harley (
The argument in this article is that a social sustainability lens provides a framework for researching issues of child protection, resiliency and risk in children’s lives. In this debate, the focus shifts to situated and contextual influences on children’s lives. In this section of the article the aim is to show how two principles in the social sustainability viewpoint can be applied to inform the creation of sustainable rural ecologies that would protect children, reduce risks and build resiliency.
The study discussed above has shown that vulnerability, risk, resilience and coping are not merely functions of adversity in contexts but more importantly of beliefs and values that underpin social institutions. Neglect of children in the family and community, discrimination and marginalisation in schools; inequities that go unaddressed by schools, national and provincial governments are societal factors that undermine children’s well-being, and point to the fact that children of certain social groups are not valued.
The study showed that child well-being is contingent upon, and vulnerable to the beliefs, values and actions of other individuals in their social environments. This emphasises the contextual nature of risk and adversity. Thus, it is critical that the values embedded in social institutions such as a school are subjected to critique, scrutiny and analysis. According to Statham and Chase (
Scholars in the field of childhood studies have shown that adult definitions and assumptions of children and of childhood produce differences in terms of attitudes and behaviours towards children. In recent debates from the sociology of childhood, children are seen as active agents who can actively control and effect change in their lives (Prout & James
Earls and Carlson (
Boydon and Mann (
Studies have shown that strong social support networks provided by relatives, community members, non-governmental organisations and social service agencies, for example, are critical to mitigating adverse influences in children’s lives. Communities need to create a space for engagement and collective responsibility for building sustainable childhoods (Boydon & Mann
Yates and Masten (
Hanewald (
This article makes a contribution to wellness discourses related to education in rural contexts, a focus in research that is largely neglected in South Africa, according to Nkambule
An issue that is silent in debates is the values embedded in social institutions that impact children’s lives, for example schools. Questions to be interrogated are: Do adults in children’s lives place a high priority on the social rights and well-being of the child? Are children valued as social agents in communities and society? How much do adults know about children’s own understandings of how they actively contribute to their own well-being, coping and survival? Do children have a space to play in their own protection?
Castillo
This study draws attention to the need for future research to focus on the importance of human agency in the creation of sustainable social organisations that are critical to the protection of the well-being of children and mitigating adversity. Research can provide insight into the elements of facilitating sustainable social environments and structures, and supportive values, attitudes and relationships that protect children’s health, resilience and well-being and mediate risk. More data is needed in diverse contexts that can illuminate the structural forces and mechanisms that mediate the well-being of groups or different categories of children in varied ecological contexts, including isolated rural contexts. Such insights can be invaluable in informing a vision, ethical principles, goals, measurable objectives and action plans for contextually relevant intervention frameworks and programmes that aim to reduce risks in children’s lives and build social sustainability.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
N.M. was the project leader. J.N. and N.M. were responsible for project design, data collection and conceptual contribution.